Legumes are major protein-rich food with high micro-nutrients. Chickpea (cicer arietinum L.) is known as Bengal gram or garbanzo bean. Old-World legume and also the seventh Neolithic founder pulse in the Fertile Crescent of North East. Chickpeas are said to be a protein-rich diet after milk. Chickpea is a member of the family Leguminosae, the world’s major grown pulse crop. Chickpeas are nutrient-dense with moderate levels of certain dietary elements such as iron, phosphorus, magnesium and zinc contents, thiamine and vitamin B6 (Jukanti et al., 2012; Segev et al., 2010). Legume has some indispensable amino acids with an absence of sulfur-containing amino acids. It was shown that the combination of chickpeas with cereals and pulses was found helpful in protecting against genetic disorders like cardiovascular diseases, adult-onset diabetes and gastrointestinal diseases (Xu and Chang, 2008).

       
Currently, chickpeas are grown in more than forty countries across the Indian subcontinent, America, North Africa, the Middle East, Southern Europe and Australia. Globally, chickpea production is in 3^rd place, which is a major legume next to field peas and dry legumes. During 2023-24 the crop was grown in an area of 9.67 m ha with production of 10.09 m tones with productivity of 1043 Kg/ha (Yuvraj et al., 2024). Chickpea is a major pulse crop that contributes ~20% of world pulse production. Karnataka is one of the major chickpea producing state in the country (Lambani et al., 2024). Chickpea is an important crop of Kalyan Karnataka Region of Kalburagi, Bidar, Raichur, Bheemarayangudi, Bijapur, Dharwad, Bellary, Hagari. In Karnataka, Kalburagi district occupies highest production of chickpea (1.24 lakh ha), production (8.63 lakh tonnes) and productivity (730 kg/ha).However lack of varietal adaptation and varied climatic conditions reduced average seed yield from 769-867Kg/acre to 605 to 650Kg/acre (Laxuman et al., 2025). Two distinct types of chickpea are kabuli and desi. The desi (microsperma) types with pink flowers contain anthocyanin pigment on stems and are highly colored with thick testa. The kabuli (macrosperma) types with white flowers lack anthocyanin pigment on stems. White or beige-colored seeds with a ram’s head shape and having thin testa with a smooth seed surface. Chickpea is a highly potential vital food that has high nutritive value. In the semi-arid tropics, chickpeas are a highly major nutrient component of the diets for individuals who cannot bear animal proteins or who are vegetarian by choice. The present investigation was to access the nutritional and anti-nutritional properties of ten chickpea genotypes of Kalyan Karnataka Region

Plant material
 
The experimental work was conducted during the year 2022-2023 and 2023-2024 at Department of Biochemistry, College of Agriculture, Kalaburagi, Karnataka. Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) genotypes were obtained from Agricultural Research Station (ARS), Zonal-1, Kalaburagi. The study consist of ten matured chickpea seeds (NBeG-49, BGD-103, JG-11, KCD-11, JAKI-9218, SA-1, A-1, GBM-2, MNK-1, KAK-2) collected, shade dried for 10 days to prepare seeds samples for nutritional and anti-nutritional analysis.
 
Chemical
 
Gallic acid, quercetin and tannic acid were obtained from Sigma chemical Co. FeCl₂  FeCl₂ ferricyanide NaNO₂ and Al₃Cl₃ 6H₂O were purchased from Sigma Chemical Co. In this study all other chemicals used were of analytical grade.
 
Nutritional and anti-nutritional properties
 
Total free amino acids content
 
Total free amino acids content was determined using Ninhydrin method of Mahesha, (2012). Different dilutions of seed extract and standard were made (0.2, 0.4, 0.6 upto l ml) followed by 1 ml of ninhydrin reagent was added. The test tubes were kept in boiling water bath for 5 min and then allowed to cooling at room temperature and measured the optical density at 570 nm using a spectrophotometer. The total free amino acids content was calculated using a standard calibration curve of glycine.
 
Total protein content
 
Protein content was estimated by using colorimetric method (Lowry et al., 1951). Different dilutions of seed extract and standard were made (0.2, 0.4, 0.6 upto l ml) reacted with alkaline copper reagent (2 ml) and incubated for 10 min at room temperature. After 10 min of incubation, 0.2 ml of Folin-Ciocalteu reagent (FCR) was added and kept in dark for 20 min. After incubation the resulting blue color was read spectrophotometrically at 660 nm. The total protein content was calculated using a standard calibration curve of bovine serum albumin (BSA).

Extraction of phenolic compound
 
Total phenolic content (TPC)
 
The TPC in the extracts was determined as per the method of Dulf et al., (2017). Extracts of residues (0.5 ml) were diluted using distilled water (up to 3 ml) to which FCR (0.5 ml) and Na₂CO₃ (7.5% w/v, 0.5 ml) were added in the test tubes. Tubes were further incubated at room temperature for 30 min in dark conditions and the absorbance was spectrophotometrically read at 720 nm. Gallic acid was used as a standard for standard curve construction to calculate TPC in the extracts and expressed in terms of mg of gallic acid equivalents (GAE) per 100 g of extract (dry).
 
Total flavonoid content (TFC)
 
The TFC in the extracts was determined as per the modified method (Gawlik-Dziki et al., 2008). Extracts of residues (0.5 ml) were diluted with distilled water (up to 2 ml) in a volumetric flask (10 ml) to which NaNO₂ (5% w/v, 0.15 ml) was added and allowed to react at room temperature for 5 min and AlCl₃.6H₂O (10% w/v, 0.15 ml) was added and incubated for 5 min. After incubation, this mixture was reacted with NaOH (1 M, 1 ml), mixed thoroughly and the absorbance was read at 510 nm spectrophotometrically, where quercetin was used as a standard for determining TFC in the extracts. It was expressed as mg of quercetin equivalent (QE) per 100 g of extract (dry).
 
Total tannin content (TTC)
 
The TTC in the extracts was determined as per the method (Faridy et al., 2020). Extracts of residues (0.5 ml) were diluted with distilled water (up to 1 ml) to which potassium ferricyanide (1% w/v, 1 ml) and ferric chloride solution (8% w/v, 1 ml) was added. Tubes were further incubated at room temperature for 5 min and the absorbance was spectrophotometrically read at 720 nm, where tannic acid was used as a standard for determining TTC in the extracts and expressed in terms of mg of tannic acid equivalents (TQE) per 100 g of extract (dry).
 
Statistical analysis
 
All the analysis was done in triplicates and the data presented are means±S.D. of three independent determinations. Significance was accepted at P≤0.05.

Chickpea is considered to be an essential legume throughout the world and has important health benefits with functional nutritive value (Haeger et al., 2022; Gulcin et al., 2012). Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is an important pulse crop in India and is well adapted to drought prone semi-arid tropical regions. Chickpea seeds are so healthy that they can also be called a “complete protein” as seeds of chickpea contain 17-34% of protein, 61.2% carbohydrates and also have all nine essential amino acids like isoleucine, leucine, lysine, phenylalanine and valine (Smartt, 1976; Karim and Fattah, 2006).

Amino acids are essential tools for building protein structure and these plays a vital role in biological activities such as in supporting tissue repair, cell metabolism and also have an important role in developing antibodies against bacteria and viruse (Kaur et al., 2014). As per reports, matured seeds were rich in free amino acid content having all essential amino acids, helps in building nucleoprotein (DNA and RNA) (Luo et al., 2002). In the current study total free amino acid content of A-1 at 6.69 mg/g, SA-1  at 6.29 mg/g, KCD-11 at 5.89 mg/g genotypes were higher amongst the ten genotypes followed by JAKI-9218 at 5.11 mg/g, GBM-2 at 5.23 mg/g, JG-11 at 4.88 mg/g, BGD-103 at 4.39 mg/g, MNK-1 at 4.05 mg/g, KAK-2 at 4.29 mg/g, lowest value was recorded in NBeG-49  at 2.5 mg/g as shown in (Fig 1). Our findings for amino content agree with results ranged between (3.8 - 6.8 mg/g) reported by Vinod et al. (2022); Rakesh et al. (2025) and Mohammad et al. (2019).


       
Chickpea protein is lower in sulfur containing amino acid methonine and cystein but when combined with cereals, have high sulfur containing amino acid with low lysine content contribute feeling of fullness that can aid in weight management by reducing overall calorie intake. Protein with high fibre content slowdown the absorption of carbohydrates and helps stabilize blood sugar levels. It also supports healthy gut microbiome that benefits digestion and nutrient absorption.
       
Chickpea protein is low in saturated fat and can help improve lipid profile by reducing LDL “bad” Cholesterol, promotes cardiovascular health (Rachel et al., 2018). Rakesh et al. (2025) reported similar results ranged between (15.7%-30.5%). Our study showed that total protein content ranged between7.0% to 27.0%. The genotypes varied significantly in respect to protein content of A-1 at 27.0%, SA-1 at 26%, KCD-11 at 25.4%  have higher value among ten genotypes followed by moderate value seen in JAKI-9218 at 23.02%, GBM-2 at 20.08%, JG-11 at 18%, BGD-103 at 16%,  MNK-1 at 21.34%, KAK-2 at 20.06% and lowest value was seen in the NBeG-49 at 7.0 % as shown in (Fig 2). Our findings agree with those of Vinod et al. (2022).


       
The phenolic compounds are natural nutritional supplements for living organisms that play an important role in homeostasis (Macar et al., 2017; Mohsenzadeh et al., 2024). Moore and Stein (1948) have reported chickpea have high phenolic, phytate and saponin content. Uses of chickpea seed in the diet found to be very protective in preventing chronic and degenerative disease (Nabila et al. 2023; Lowry et al., 1951). Quintero-Soto et al. (2018) and Summon et al. (2008) reported that polyphenols act as scavengers of peroxyl and hydroxyl radicals, help in controlling cardiovascular disease and also play a vital role in deactivating metal ions.
       
In the present study, range of total phenolic content for chickpea genotypes varied between 21.35 mg of GAE/g to 48.39 mg of GAE/g. It was seen that the genotypes varied significantly in respect to phenolic content. Highest phenolic content  A-1 at 48.39 mg of GAE/g, SA-1 at 41.98 mg of GAE/g, KCD-11 at 44.98 mg of GAE/g followed by BGD-103 at 40.88 mg of GAE/g, GBM-2 at 42.39mg of GAE/g, JG-11 at 35.98 mg of GAE/g, JAKI-9218 at 32.11 mg of GAE/g, MNK-1 at 41.11mg of GAE/g, KAK-2 at 39.88 mg of GAE/g and lowest content was seen in NBeG-49 at 21.35 mg of GAE/g as shown in (Fig 3). Mohammad et al. (2019) and Rakesh et al. (2025) reported that phenolic content in chickpea genotypes ranged between (32.5 mg/g - 60.1 mg/g).


       
Wang et al., (2018) reports that an increase in total phenolic and total flavonoid content in plants helps in protecting against antioxidant, antibacterial and anti-inflammatory activities. Verma et al. (2019) reports that stabilization of biological activity is carried out by flavonoids which have phenolic groups in their structure and flavonoid intake helps in the reduction of diabetes, obesity and osteoporosis and also in cancer prevention. Total flavonoid content range from 18.39 mg of QE/ g to 44.35 mg of QE/ g. It was observed that the genotypes varied significantly in respect to flavonoid content. Highest flavonoid content was evident in genotype A-1 at 44.35 mg of QE/ g, SA-1 at 38.11mg of QE/ g, KCD-11 at 39.09 mg of QE/ g followed by BGD-103 at 35.08 mg of QE/ g, MNK-1 at 30.89 mg of QE/ g, KAK-2 at 26.1 mg of QE/ g and lowest value was seen in the NBeG-49 at 18.39 mg of QE/ g as shown in (Fig 4). From the data it reveals desi type were rich in phenolic as well as flavonoid content compared with kabuli types present in seed and mainly in seed coat of chickpea. Mohammad et al. (2019) and Rakesh et al. (2025) reported that flavonoid content in chickpea genotypes ranged between (26.1 mg/g - 47.0 mg/g).


        
Tannin concentration is high in colored (desi) chickpea compared with lighter colored kabuli types. High percentage of tannin content is found in chickpea seed coat, these tannin are anti nutritional factor have the ability to form complexes with minerals and hinder intestinal absorption have recently gained recognition for their potential health promoting properties. Jayalakshmi and Kumar, (2023) reported that tannin has antiviral, antibacterial, chemo protective and also has potential application in preventive health care. According to the report of Xu and Chang (2008) during food mastication, saliva protein and mucosal membrane of the mouth bind to tannin content, this helps in reducing the digestibility of carbohydrates and protein.
       
Tannin is mainly present in the seed coat and plays a major role in protecting the seeds from oxidative damage by many environmental conditions. It was observed that the genotypes varied significantly in respect with tannin content. Highest tannin content was observed in A-1 at 12.35 mg of TQE/ g, SA-1 at 10.98 mg of TQE/ g, KCD-11 at 11.09 mg of TQE/ g followed by BGD-103 at 9.39 mg of TQE/ g, MNK-1 at 7.35 mg of TQE/ g, KAK-2 at 8.05 mg of TQE/g and lowest value was seen in the NBeG-49 at 4.99mg of TQE/ g shown in (Fig 5). Rakesh et al. (2025) and Mohammad et al. (2019) reported that tannin content in chickpea genotypes ranged between (4.12 mg/g - 12.0 mg/g).


       
Jodha and Subbarao (1987) introduction of chickpea crop in a cereal based crop rotation can break the disease and pest cycle and increase the productivity of the entire rotation and thus plays an important role in sustaining soil fertility. In view of its role in sustaining nutritional security and soil fertility the crop is being preferred by marginal farmers of India.                                    
       
The current study reveals that (desi) chickpea genotypes have a high source of protein, amino acids, phenolic compounds, flavonoid and tannins content compared with kabuli type. As per the report, it was believed that a legume with high phenolic content helps in curing various diseases. Fig (1-5) clearly state that chickpea seeds and seed coat have elevated levels of nutritional and anti nutritional value for the betterment of mankind.

Nowadays, people are aware of health consciousness; the demand for delicious and easily accessible food products with high nutritional value. Chickpea is a major and functional food with a low price. The result showed that all genotypes have good source of protein content, amino acid content, phenolic content, flavonoid content and tannin content were analyzed and witnessed for nutritional and anti-nutritional properties. The result of the study found that A-1, SA-1 and KCD-11 are highly significant and superior followed by JG-11, JAKI-9218, GBM-2, MNK-1, KAK-2, BGD-103 and low value was found in NBeG-49 genotype. The results of the study showed that all genotypes can be accepted as functional foods that are supported by rich nutritional and anti-nutritional property. The present research is original and this is the first report for nutritional and anti-nutritional properties of all ten chickpea genotypes of Kalyan Karnataka Region. Hence, may recommend to the breeder for selecting the genotypes for the beneficiary of mankind, as chickpea is a major functional food with cost-effective and high-nutritive value.

All authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.