<div style="text-align: justify;">Fungal pathogenic populations such as Sclerotinia, Rhizoctonia and Fusarium are ubiquitous and have broad range of host enabling them to cause a severe infection resulting in huge yield losses. Albeit the various tactics such as cultural, mechanical implemented to counteract the havoc, it still creates a formidable challenge to the researchers to keep the pathogenic population below threshold. From Eco-friendly sustenance perspective, Biological control can play a vital role in combination along with the other efficient tactics. In field condition various strains are available having two characters namely virulent and hypovirulent, the latter may exhibit hypovirulent nature genetically or due to the invasion of mycoviruses becomes hypovirulent. In both the cases are of interest to the researchers in studying the biological control exhibited by the mycoviruses. The biocontrol agents include Mycoviruses, which plays a significant role in infecting the virulent fungal pathogen by reducing their virulence giving to a phenomenon known as Hypovirulence. Their genome consist of mostly dsRNA and others include +ssRNA, -ssRNA and dsDNA. These studies in fungal and viral interaction can lead to the development of novel biological control strategies and help us to explore upto the molecular level.</div>

<div style="text-align: justify;">Potential of Mycovirus in the Biological Control of Fungal Plant Pathogens: A Review</div>

<div style="text-align: justify;">Environment is an important aspect of plant ecology and global environmental change is of major concern that is caused by natural and human activities which alter greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere. The increase in concentration of greenhouse gases is foreseen to continue to raise average global temperature. Elevated concentration of carbon dioxide with increased temperature influences the plant-disease interactions. The environment has an influence over the development as well as temporal and spatial dissemination of plant diseases. The result of change in environment can either be favorable, non favorable or impartial, as these changes can either lessen, expand or have no influence on diseases as each disease may be attributed differently to these variations in accordance to an area or time of year. Variation in environmental conditions is said to be influencing plants in natural ecosystems all around the world and change in climate directly impacts crops, along with their synergy in accordance with the microbial population. The important elements governing magnification and spread of plant diseases are temperature, moisture, light and carbon dioxide concentration. Environment change causes a significant impact on germination, reproduction, sporulation, spore dispersal, along with perforation by pathogens as a vulnerable host will not be invaded by a pernicious pathogen if the environmental conditions are not facilitative for disease. The environment influences all life stages of host as well as that of a pathogen and as a result induces an opposition to various pathosystems. Resistance mechanisms of plants, including effector-triggered immunity (ETI), pattern-triggered immunity (PTI) and defence network of hormones, are particularly influenced by environmental elements. Pathogenic virulence mechanisms like fabrication of virulence proteins and toxins, and also spore germination and survival are governed by factors such as atmospheric carbon dioxide, temperature and humidity. A large number of in-vitro experiments to understand interactions between plants and pathogens rely on predetermined pathosystems by making use of ascertained environmental conditions which take into consideration relatively small part of vital plant&ndash;pathogen&ndash;environment interactions occurring in natural ecosystem. Thus, there is a need to research effectiveness of disease management strategies that is, to assess current management strategies to understand multifaceted nature of environment-pathogen interactions for production of crops that are irrepressible to environment change.</div>

Environment-Pathogen Interaction in Plant Diseases

<div>Agriculture is the most important economic activity around the world with its contributions reflected by its share in the gross domestic product of countries. It ensures food security, provides raw materials for many industries and employment opportunities. Today, pest and diseases are among the main challenges plaguing the agricultural sector. More specifically, phytophagous mites are devastating many economically important crops worldwide. Tetranychus urticae Koch (Two-spotted spider mites), Raoiella indica Hirst, (red palm mites), Polyphagotarsonemus latus Banks (broad mites) and Panonychus ulmi Koch (European red mites) are widely known for their extensive damage to crops. To control these mites, farmers have incorporated the use of pesticides into their farming systems. However, chemical control comes with many problems such as insect resistance, detrimental environmental effects and various human health implications. As such biological control is an environmentally friendly alternative that uses bio-control agents such as predators, pathogens and parasitoids to control pests. In this review, it was found that predators and pathogens were the most widely used biocontrol agents, specifically, the Amblyseius spp. Berlese were most effective and widely documented. The available literature also suggests that for successful control of agricultural mites via biological control, there needs to be a clear understanding of the behaviors of these mites and the bio-control agents used. 
&nbsp;</div>

Biological Control Methods for Agricultural Mites: A Review

Background: Pepper growing fields in the Babil and Wasit governorates in Iraq, are suffering from a decline in production due to the spread of root rot diseases. The use of biological control techniques, such as the use of beneficial bacteria in the rhizosphere and natural plant extracts, along with chemical fungicides, has recently contributed to reducing the damage of plant pathogens globally. 
 
Methods: In this research, the main cause of root rot disease in pepper plants was isolated and diagnosed using polymerase chain reaction technology using (TEF-1&alpha;) gene, antagonistic activities of 75 rhizobacterial isolates, natural extracts of garlic and nerium and the fungicides of Promess and Tecto 500 SC were tested in vitro against the pathogen, then the superior bacterial isolates were identified. The ability of biological and chemical agents to control the disease was tested under greenhouse conditions according to the completely randomized design (CRD). 
 
Result: The results of isolation showed that the fungus Fusarium solani was dominance and the isolate Fsw45 was the most virulent. 3 of 75 rhizobacterial isolates outperformed the pathogen in an antagonistic tests and identified as Pseudomonas mendocina, P. fluorescens and Staphylococcus kloosii also the fungicides and botanical extracts showed significant antagonistic activities as well in vitro. Under greenhouse conditions, the fungicide treatments excelled in disease control by 100%. As for the 3 bacterial isolates, they achieved a significant reduction in the percentage of disease incidence and disease severity index, their abilities were higher than the nerium and garlic extracts.

Some Chemical and Biological Methods to Control Pepper Root Rot Disease in Iraq

<div>Background: Red rot causing fungus Colletotrichum falcatum is most destructive and severe pathogen of sugarcane. Genetic makeup of this pathogen C. falcatum changes continuously and management of this disease is difficult by fungicides. Biological control offers fair opportunity to manage the yield loss caused by this pathogen. Aim of this research was to study the pathogenic behavior of Colletotrichum falcatum isolates in Punjab region and also to evaluate the potential of the biocontrol agents against the Colletotrichum falcatum. 
 
Methods: Pathogen isolates were collected from sugarcane mill areas of Punjab during survey and their pathogenic behaviour on fourteen sugarcane differentials was also studied against C. falcatum. Further efficacy of biocontrol agents were studied against red rot pathogen in both in vitro and in vivo conditions.&nbsp; 
 
Result: CF02 pathotype showed higher virulence on sugarcane differentials and pathotype CF01 showed less virulence. Four sugarcane differentials, Baragua, BO91, COS8436, SES594 were found resistant to all the pathotypes or isolates. Studies revealed that all the antagonists inhibited or suppressed the mycelial growth of Colletotrichum falcatum out of that Pseudomonas flourescens found to be more efficient by showing the inhibition control of 68.18% in vitro conditions. Trichoderma viride was found to be highly effective in vivo conditions, by controlling the red rot disease up to 32.2%. Overall present study shows management of plant pathogens through biological control is a promising and sustainable measure for necrotrophic pathogen like C. falcatum in current scenario.</div>

Bioagents Trichoderma and Pseudomonas Shows Promising Results against Isolates of Sugarcane Pathogen Colletotrichum falcatum from Punjab Region

<div>A vector is an organism capable of transmitting pathogens from one host to another. Among the plant pathogen transmitting agencies, insect vectors are most important and various plant pathogens in crops are transmitted by insects. Insect vectors are much more hazardous because small population of vector can spread the pathogen in whole of the field or to new areas. These are difficult to manage and hence multi-pronged strategy should be adopted. To effectively manage insect vectors of plant pathogens there is a need to look into the careful timing of application of chemicals, integrated treatment with vector sampling, estimation of threshold level of vectors, assessing infection of pathogen at varying period of the year and combining insecticides with other means of control such as resistant cultivars, natural enemies, inclusion of plant products, cultural practices, biotechnology tools etc. An integration of control measures will be more effective and ecologically sound than any single method to control insect vectors of plant pathogens. The control of insect vectors with the use of various tactics should be used to reduce the severity and to delay appearance of disease.</div>

<div>Integrated Management of Insect Vectors of Plant Pathogens</div>

India stands as a global agricultural powerhouse, employing over 60% of its population in farming and related sectors. Agriculture forms a significant pillar of the nation&rsquo;s GDP, with vegetables being a cornerstone of its horticultural output. Despite advancements in vegetable production, the sector faces myriad challenges, including insect infestations, diseases and other biotic and abiotic factors that compromise yield and quality. This review article delves into the biological control of pests in key tropical vegetable crops like brinjal, tomato, chili, okra and cucurbits. It explores the use of biological control agents such as predators, parasitoids and pathogens as part of integrated pest management strategies aimed at reducing the dependency on synthetic pesticides. It provides an in-depth analysis of common pests such as whiteflies, aphids, mealybugs and thrips, as well as crop-specific pests like brinjal and bhendi shoot and fruit borers. The paper underscores the advantages of biological control, including its environmental sustainability and reduced risk of pest resistance, while also acknowledging its limitations such as slower pest elimination rates and higher costs. It calls for concerted efforts from governmental bodies, NGOs and agricultural institutes to promote awareness and training in biological control methods. The focus of the review is to advocate for a paradigm shift towards sustainable and effective pest management practices in India&rsquo;s vegetable farming sector.

Biological Control of Pests in Major Tropical Vegetable Crops: A Review

<div style="text-align: justify;">The pure of an individual is relative to the hybrid. No two identical organisms are found on the earth at the level of nucleotide sequence. After two parents mating, the variations of their offspring will occur in the nucleotide sequence compared to their parents, which are called biological heterozygous effect. However, the molecular bases for this phenomenon remain elusive. In our view, biological heterozygous effects at least follow the below rules: Firstly, the contribution of the outcome of traits passed from parents to offspring is not equal. Secondly, progeny variation across the heterozygous individuals is lineage-specific dependent and some difference is found among the individuals within a family. Thirdly, biological variation is absolute, random, non-directional, and is fixed and forms a new species while other variation is getting into the blind branch of the species under some circumstances. In summary, Heterozygous effect is the key reason for the formation of biodiversity on the earth.</div>

Some novel rules of the biological heterozygous effects &nbsp;

Indiscriminate use of chemicals as fertilizers and pesticides gives rise to substantial harm to the environment and ecosystem along with animals and humans. More importantly, to replace such hazardous agrochemicals, many biological solutions are available in nature which is present in the form of microorganisms having the capacity to promote plant growth substantially. Pseudomonas play a major role in plants like inducing systemic resistance, colonizing plant roots or tissue interior, helping in modulating plant hormone levels, biological control of pathogens and more over regulating the growth-related genes in plants. The fluorescent pseudomonads belong to plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) and many strains of pseudomonas are well known to enhance plant growth promotion and decrease the severity of many diseases. Biocontrol strains of pseudomonas in plant bioassays synthesize one or more several antibiotic compounds. In vitro, these antibiotics have been proven as inhibitory compounds and have exhibited active responses for plant health management in field conditions. The current study mainly relies on the effective use of Pseudomonas spp. as a potential biocontrol agent for the biological control of many diseases in agriculture and horticultural crops.&nbsp;

Application of Pseudomonas Strains for Biocontrol of Commercial Crops Susceptible to Plant Pathogens: A Review

<div style="text-align: justify;">&nbsp;The objective of this work was to evaluate the association of bimodality of milk flow curves with microbiological status of mammary glands and parity of cows. We selected 167 primiparous and 148 multiparous Lithuanian Black and White dairy cows in 2nd to 4th month of lactation. &nbsp;The bimodality of milk flow was determined in 22.2% primiparous and in 38.6% multiparous cows (P&lt;0.001). The most prevalent pathogens of mastitis were Staphylococcus aureus (15.3%), other staphylococci (22.2%) and streptococci (5.8%). Prevalence of mastitis pathogens in multiparous cows was 1.4 times and the bimodality of milk flow curves &ndash;1.7 times higher in comparison with primiparous cows (P&lt;0.001). The bimodality of milk flow curve was mostly associated with the prevalence of Streptococcus agalactiae and Staphylococcus aureus (P&lt;0.001). The increased frequency of mastitis pathogens (21.5%) in cows with the bimodal milk flow curves supports the negative effect of bimodality on udder health of cows (P&lt;0.001).</div>