<div style="text-align:justify">Background: The Pleurotus genus is one of the most investigated white-rot fungus due to its excellent ligninolytic characteristics. It is a tasty mushroom that also has a number of biological impacts due to the presence of essential bioactive compounds. Many usual fermentation parameters affect lignocellulolytic enzymes in basidiomycete fungi, such as medium composition, carbon-to-nitrogen ratio, pH, temperature, air composition etc. The survival and multiplication of Pleurotus mushrooms is dependent on a number of factors, which may function independently or interactive effect on the growth of mushroom. Grasp the difficulty of treating Pleurotus species mushrooms necessitates a fundamental understanding of their physical, chemical and biological characteristics.</div>

<div style="text-align:justify">Methods:&nbsp; In this study, the effects of culture media, temperature, carbon sources, nitrogen sources, grain sources and agricultural waste as lignocellulosic substrate on the mycelium growth of five species of Pleurotus species for spawn production were studied. Several trials were designed to evaluate factors affecting mycelium growth of five oyster mushroom species. The experiments were conducted during October to February in the year 2019 to 2021. The experiments were carried out in three replications per treatment. 
Result: The results of the experiment indicated that potato dextrose agar (PDA) and Malt extract agar (MEA) were the most suitable media for the mycelium growth of all oyster mushrooms. The optimal temperature for mycelium growth of all the oyster mushroom species was obtained at 25&plusmn;2oC. Mycelium growth of all the studied oyster mushroom was improved by carbon sources such as dextrose and glucose. The nitrogen source such as ammonium chloride and ammonium sulfate also gave the greatest values in mycelium colony diameter of mushroom. Wheat was found to be favourable for mycelium growth of all the oyster mushroom species. In addition, paddy straw and sugarcane residue were selected as suitable lignocellulosic substrate sources for mycelium growth of all the studied oyster mushrooms.</div>

The Effect of Growth Conditions on Mycelial Run of Oyster Mushrooms spp. (Pleurotus spp.): Implication for Agricultural Practices

Background: Successful methods to control Sclerotium rolfsii in beds of oyster mushroom cultivation are not presently known. The aim of the present investigation was to determine antifungal potentials of some plant extracts against the infection of S. rolfsii associated with the oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) cultivation. 
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Methods: Aqueous extracts of four different plants parts viz. leaf of Azadirachta indica (neem), leaf of Pongamia pinnata (karanj), bulbs of Allium cepa (onion) and cloves of Allium sativum (garlic) were evaluated in the laboratory for their efficacy against both P. ostreatus mycelium and pathogen. The plant extracts which displaced least adverse effects on the growth of&nbsp;&nbsp; P. ostreatus and maximum inhibition of pathogen were evaluated to find out the yield performance of P. ostreatus under in vivo conditions in mushroom house. 
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Results: Neem (Azadirachta indica) leaf extract showed maximum average mycelial and sclerotial inhibition i.e. 47.9 % and 52.4 %, respectively followed by karanj (Pongamia pinnata) leaf extract i.e. 38.4 % and 47.9 %, respectively. Maximum yield of oyster mushroom (885.0 g/ kg dry substrate) was also recorded in neem leaf extract followed by karanj leaf extract (867.5 g/ kg dry substrate) and cloves of garlic (846.3 g/ kg dry substrate) which were statistically at par with each other.

Management of Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. Infection in Oyster Mushroom [Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq.) Kumm.] by Plant Extracts&nbsp;

Background: Snail farming is becoming increasingly popular in sub-Saharan Africa. But the real success of snail farming depends on the right feed formulas. With the aim of contributing to the formulation of diets for giant African snails, a study was carried out on the growth performance and meat yield of Achatina achatina subjected to different diets based on leaves powder. 
 
Methods: Fifteen batches of 30 two-month-old snails seedlings were fed for 6 months on diets made by enriched the leaves&nbsp; (papaya, taro, moringa and pigeon pea) powder at different rates (0%, 5%, 10%, 15% and 20%) with oyster shell powder. The growth performance and meat yields of these snails were determined and compared with those of a control batch of snails fed fresh papaya, taro, moringa and pigeon pea leaves.

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Result: Snails fed with leaf powder enriched with 20% oyster shell showed the greatest gains in weight (97.33&plusmn;4.2 g) and shell length (3.3&plusmn;0.8 cm). Although these animals had the highest proportions of shell (40&plusmn;3.2%), they provided the greatest quantities of soft tissue (60.3&plusmn;3.2 g) and edible flesh (33.5&plusmn;2.9 g). The diet consisting solely of fresh leaves induced the smallest gains in weight (21.6 &plusmn;5.1 g) and shell length (1.08&plusmn;0.9 cm).&nbsp; Snails fed this diet had the highest percentage of soft tissue (78.02&plusmn;6.53%). However, they provided the lowest amounts of soft tissue (19.34&plusmn;2.8 g) and fresh edible meat (9.66&plusmn;1.4 g).

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Growth Performance of Achatina achatina Fed with Leaf Powder Enriched in Oyster Shell Powder

Background: Mushroom cultivation increased throughout the world with the utilization of crop residues. Oyster mushroom (Pleurotus spp.) is suitable for most of the area and less expensive for cultivation with the availability of paddy straw. Increasing demand of paddy straw compels to search alternate source of substrate for mushroom production. Based on this information efforts were taken to compare many locally available leaf substrates for Pleurotus citrinopileatus production. 
 
Methods: Leaf substrates viz., teak, bamboo, maize, banana, coconut,&nbsp; mango, sugarcane bagasse and grass (Dactyloctenium aegyptium) were tested for the cultivation of P. citrinopileatus. Grain substrates viz., paddy, cumbu, bengal gram, green gram, sorghum, black gram, ragi and the above leaf substrates were studied for their effect on radial mycelial growth and dry weight of&nbsp; 
P. citrinopileatus. 
 
Result: All the leaf substrates were on par with each other for radial mycelial growth. Highest mycelial dry weight of 724.67 mg was recorded in paddy straw. Among the different leaf substrates used for mushroom bed preparation, banana leaf substrates showed highest yield of 115.00 g than paddy straw. Weight of mushroom spent bed was recorded to observe the utilization of substrates in which bamboo was decomposed at the maximum. Addition of grain substrates enhanced the growth of mycelium.

Utilization of Lignocellulosic Substrates on Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus citrinopileatus) Cultivation

<div style="text-align:justify">Background: Mushroom is a typical fungi having spore bearing fruiting bodies without chlorophyll in them. Due to its high nutritive and medicinal value, it is being popular among the public. 
Methods: The research was conducted in laboratory condition of Mahendra Gram Secondary School, Bhaktapur; under control environmental condition to evaluate primordial formation and yield analysis of oyster mushroom Pleurotus florida using different sterilization techniques from March to July 2020. 
Result: Earlier primordial formation was visualized in chemical method and higher yield was obtained from steaming method of sterilization. However, boiling method showed harsh result for all parameters as primordial formation, fruiting and yield. But still number of researches should be conducted for the exact evaluation of the yield performance.</div>

Analysis of Primordia and Fruiting Forming Days on using Different Sterilization Techniques of Straw and its Effect on Yield of Blue Oyster Mushroom

Mushrooms are basically fungi, which have a fleshy and spore-bearing fruiting body. They have been in use not only for consumption purposes but also for medicinal purposes since ages. Today mushrooms are eaten by people for their flavor, texture as well as for the health benefits. Addition or fortification of mushrooms in traditional food of India may enhance their acceptance among common people because these are rich in nutrients and provide health benefits. They have a profound ability to boost immune system, fight cancers and improve functioning of important organs, as they are full of proteins, vitamins, minerals, amino acids, antibiotics and antioxidants. Mushrooms can therefore be used as a weapon against malnutrition and starvation because of its high protein and vitamin content. Hence, an attempt was made to develop mushroom powder and fortified potato pudding with mushroom powder and the developed products were evaluated for sensory parameters and nutritive value. Nutritional analysis of powder revealed that mushroom powder retained high amount of protein (22.10g), fibre (15.70g), low amount of fat (1.90g) and good amount of carbohydrate (43.70g) while nutritional analysis of developed potato pudding revealed that 5% (T1 sample) fortification of mushroom powder in potato pudding retained high amount of protein (2.28g) and fibre (0.26g) and good amount of fat (1.36g) and carbohydrate (18.93g) than control sample. The organoleptic acceptability of developed potato pudding revealed that 5% (T1 sample) fortification of mushroom powder in potato puddingwas liked extremely.&nbsp;

Formulation and quality evaluation of mushroom (Oyster mushroom)&nbsp;powder fortified potato pudding

Background: The high density of farmed snakehead fish and the expansion of the farming area might cause a negative impact on water environment and an increased frequency of fish diseases. The use of plant-based extracts has been promised as an alternative method to antibiotic application in the controlling of fish diseases. This study was conducted to investigate the effect of Pleurotus ostreatus extract on survival, growth, immune responses and against Aeromonas hydrophila of snakehead fish (Channa striata).&nbsp; 
 
Methods: During 2021-11 to 2022-10, the P. ostreatus extract was prepared using hot water method and the fish fed diets supplemented the extract at 0.0 g kg-1, 1.5 g kg-1, 2.5 g kg-1, 3.5 g kg-1 and 4.5 g kg-1 was examined for survival rates, growth responses, white blood cell&nbsp; count, respiratory burst activity and mortality rates of fish in A. hydrophila infection. 
 
Result: The results indicated snakehead fish fed five different diets showed no significant differences in survival and growth performances. However, the innate immune parameters were likely increased in fish fed diets supplemented P. ostreatus extract and the diet supplemented extract at 4.5 g kg-1 could reduce the accumulate mortality of snakehead fish challenged with A. hydrophila. P. ostreatus extract could be a promising material for enhancing the innate immunity of snakehead fish and can protect fish from A. hydrophila infection.

Effect of Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) Extract on Survival, Growth Performances, Immune Responses and against Aeromonas hydrophila of Snakehead Fish (Channa striata)

<div>Background: With the increasing awareness in public on health and nutrition, mushrooms have gained more popularity in recent times for its nutritional, health benefits and culinary value. These are excellent source of vitamins and minerals. Hence, often called as &ldquo;White Vegetable&rdquo; They are regarded as one of the superfoods due to their high nutrient content as well as their healing properties. 
 
Methods: The present study was carried with the objective of analysing the macronutrients and mineral composition of three edible mushroom varieties i.e., oyster mushroom-Hypsizygus ulmarius (Elm oyster mushroom); Milky mushrooms- Calocybe indica and APK2 
 
Results: Our results revealed that the high protein content was found high in Hypsizygus ulmarius, Oyster mushroom (39&plusmn;0.08%) followed by Calocybe indica (34.22&plusmn;0.15) and APK2 (33.23&plusmn;0.08%). While, the crude fibre and carbohydrate content among the three mushrooms ranged from 17.24% to 36.14% and 7.66 to 29.09% respectively. Minerals content among the mushroom varieties, with findings ranging from Na-30mg to 41mg, K-989mg to 1258mg, and P-622mg to 766mg Per 100g dry weight. Cu, Fe, Zn and Mn concentration were ranging from 2.7mg to 3.8mg, 26mg-70mg, 15mg- 16mg and 1.7mg-2.4mg /100g of dry weight respectively</div>

Assessment of Nutritional Profile of the Edible Mushrooms

Background: Energy is the important part of any life, the potential energy present in the tissue in the form of chemical energy. Presence of glycogen as glucose is source of energy for cell division, differentiation, delamination and maturation process as essential process in histogenesis of foetal organ. Glycosaminoglycans, also known as mucopolysaccharides, are long chains of sugar occurs in different proportion in different tissue and their distribution in compartment of ruminant stomach varied in foetus of different CRL. Copmartment of ruminant stomach abomasum , omasum, reticulum and rumen was contributed grossly in varied proportion from initial stage to full term of prenatal stage. In initial stage rumen is largest compartment with advancement of development omasum is largest compartment&nbsp; followed by reticulum and abomasum at full term.&nbsp;As per morphology and histology of varied compartment there could be probability of varied intensity of histochemical reaction in different layer of tissue as per their ebryogenesis.&nbsp;Kosali cattle is registered 36th breed of India. Kosali the native breed of Chhattisgarh, known for its compact body, disease tolerance and well maintained in agricultural waste. More than total 60% Kosali cattle are concentrated in the central plains of the C.G. state. There is paucity of Cited literature, literally no scientific documentation regarding presence and distribution of glycogen and mucopolysaccharides in rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum of prenatal Kosali cattle. In view importance of Kosali cattle concern with livelihood of farmers in Chhattisgarh, varied degree of development of compartment of stomach and paucity of literature regarding intensity of histochemical reaction&nbsp; from initial to final term of prenatal stage present research was undertaken. 
 
Methods: In light of above background in twenty four Kosali foeti were collected and on the basis of CR length categorizedin to four groups with six foeti in each group i.e. Group I (below 20 cm CRL), Group II (Above 20 up to 40 cm CRL), Group III (Above 40 up to 60 cm CRL) and group IV (Above 60 cm CRL) , tissue samples ofrumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum were collected and processed&nbsp; for study of glycogen and mucopolysaccharide by PAS and&nbsp; AB-PAS method respectively. 
 
Result: Apparently in group I PAS&nbsp; activity was either not observed&nbsp; as in reticulum or very mild in rumen, omasum and abomasum and was greater in abomasum. In epithelium, propria submucosa and serosa PAS activity increased slowly mostly from mild to moderate while in glands reaction was intense. However in tunica muscularis of rumen reaction decreased from group III to IV , in omasal tunica muscularis and omasal laminae from group II to IV. In group I PAS activity was higher in pyloric region than cardiac stomach. AB-PAS activity for neutral mucopolysaccharide was&nbsp; observed in epithelium and tunica muscularis of rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum in all groups, mixed mild activity for both neutral and acid mucopolysaccharide in propria submucosa in group I and II. In fundic region in group III and IV in glands intense acid mucopolysaccharide reaction was seen in patches in forerunner parietal cells.

Prenatal Histochemical Study of Stomach in Kosali Cattle

<div style="text-align:justify">Background: Pleurotus species constitutes one of the choicest edible mushrooms, it is commonly known as &ldquo;Oyster Mushroom&rdquo; and in India it is commonly called as &ldquo;Dhingri. It has important medicinal, biotechnological properties and environmental applications. Its cultivation can be done on a number of agricultural wastes and organic waste materials. There are significant problems in classifying Pleurotus isolates using only morphological characters which are often unreliable and inconclusive mainly due to the large influence exerted by environmental factors.&nbsp; Methods: A wild isolate of Pleurotus was collected from North western Himalayas and its identity was confirmed by molecular studies. Yield, nutritional components and its bioactive molecules were compared with the cultivated isolate of Pleurotus djamore Antibacterial activities of both the isolates of were performed &nbsp;against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus by disc diffusion.&nbsp; Result: Molecular studies confirmed the identity of wild isolate of Pleurotus as Pleurotus djamore. The maximum yield of wild isolate was on paddy straw followed by wheat straw. The protein content was 32.3&plusmn;0.50g-1 in wild isolate and 28.7&plusmn;1.67g-1 in cultivated isolate. Presence of nutritional components and phytochemicals inferred in this study indicate the importance of Pleurotus djamore in the pharmaceutical.</div>

<div style="text-align: justify;">Comparison of Yield, Nutrient Content and Antibacterial Activities of Wild and Cultivated Isolates of Pleurotus djamor</div>