Rainfed deep Vertisols in semi-arid regions of India are traditionally left fallow during the kharif season to conserve soil moisture for rabi crops, particularly chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.). While this practice ensures residual moisture availability, it significantly limits cropping intensity, land productivity and resource use efficiency. Recent agronomic research has demonstrated the feasibility of cropping kharif fallows with short-duration, low-water-demand crops such as green gram, foxtail millet, sesame and cowpea. These crops can be harvested before the onset of rabi season, leaving sufficient residual moisture for chickpea establishment. Moreover, strategic interventions in land configuration, nutrient management and integrated pest control have enabled successful kharif cropping in Vertisols, mitigating risks associated with waterlogging and poor soil aeration. This review synthesizes multidisciplinary research on kharif crop-chickpea systems, comparing them with conventional fallow-chickpea rotations across agronomic, economic and ecological metrics. Evidence from long-term trials and farmer participatory research reveals that intensified systems improve chickpea equivalent yields, enhance soil carbon sequestration, suppress pest and disease cycles and contribute to climate resilience. Integrated nutrient and residue management further supports soil health and microbial activity, while diversified cropping systems offer better profitability and livelihood security. Across Vertisol regions, inclusion of kharif crops increased chickpea equivalent yield by 22-33% and soil organic carbon by 18-21% compared with traditional fallow-chickpea system, while also improving yield stability and farm profitability. The paper also identifies key research gaps and policy interventions needed to scale sustainable kharif cropping in Vertisol landscapes. By integrating agronomic innovations with ecological and socioeconomic perspectives, this review provides a comprehensive framework for advancing chickpea-based systems and promoting sustainable intensification in rainfed agriculture. 
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Cropping Kharif Fallows to Enhance Rabi Chickpea Productivity and Cropping Intensity in Rainfed Deep Vertisols: A Comprehensive Review

<div>Background: An intensive cropping system involving legume and vegetable crops not only highly productive and profitable but should also be stable over time and maintains soil health in present scenario. So, keeping this point in view the present investigation was carried out to evaluate the productivity, profitability and sustainability of legume entailing different ultra high intensity rice based cropping system models under irrigated sub-tropics.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: The field experiment was conducted at Research Farm, SKUAST-Jammu, Main Campus, Chatha for two consecutive years from kharif 2019 to summer season of 2021. The experiment consisting of five legume entailing rice based cropping system models of cropping intensity varying from 300-600% viz. T1: Rice (Basmati-370) - Wheat (HD-3086) - Cowpea (Lobia Super-60) having 300% cropping intensity, T2: Rice (Basmati-564) - Potato (Kufri Badshah) - Wheat (Raj-3765) - Mixed fodder (Maize+Cowpea+Charri in 2:2:1 ratio) having 400% cropping intensity, T3: Rice (SJR-129) - Knol khol (G-40) - Potato (Kufri Sindhuri) - Green gram (IPM 02-3) having 400% cropping intensity, T4: Rice (Pusa-1121) - Radish (CR-45) - Green onion (Nasik Red) - French bean (Anupama) - Okra (Seli special) having 500% cropping intensity in relay cropping from fourth crop onwards and T5: Rice (IET-1410) - Fenugreek (JF-07) - Knol khol (G-40) - Green onion (Nasik Red) - Dry onion (Selection-1) - Black gram (Pant U-19) having 600% cropping intensity in relay cropping from third crop onwards was laid out in a randomized block design with four replications. 
 
Result: The results obtained under two years research study revealed that treatment T4 recorded significantly highest basmati-370 rice equivalent system productivity followed by treatment T5. Further, treatment T4 also recorded highest system cost of cultivation, system gross returns and system net returns. System soil fertility status in terms of available NPK after completion of second crop cycle was significantly affected. Among different cropping systems, significantly higher available nitrogen and phosphorus were recorded in treatment T5 system which was at par with treatment T4.</div>

Performance of Diversified Legume Entailing Ultra High Intensity Rice based Cropping System Models for Higher Productivity, Profitability and Sustainability

Background: Cropping system is an essential component of a farming system. Farmers use a variety of cropping systems based on their expertise, scientific validation is essential before recommending a certain cropping system for a specific area. The purpose of the study was to determine the yield and profitability of a diversified intensive cropping system with nutrient management strategies that are more productive and profitable than existing ones for Tamil Nadu&rsquo;s North Western Zone.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: With four replications, the experiment was set up in a strip plot style. Five treatments were used, one of which included intensive diversified cropping systems viz., C1: Groundnut-chillies-greengram, C2: Groundnut + redgram (6:1)-sorghum-blackgram, C3: Maize + fodder cowpea (1:1) - sunflower-greengram, C4: Bhendi + coriander (1:1) - tomato-blackgram, C5: Brinjal + onion (1:2) - cowpea-sunnhemp were taken in main-plots and five nutrient management practices treatments were imposed in sub-plots, including farm yard manure at 12.5 t/ha and vermicompost at 2.5, 5 and 7.5 t/ha, as well as fertilisers at variable levels of 100, 75 and 50 per cent were imposed in sub-plots.&nbsp; 
 
Result: Higher total system groundnut equivalent yield was recorded in Bhendi + coriander (1:1) - tomato - blackgram cropping system with respect to nutrient management it was recorded higher in farmyard manure @ 12.5 t/ha along with application of 100 per cent recommended dose of fertilizer. Higher B:C ratio and net return was recorded in Bhendi + coriander (1:1) - tomato - blackgram cropping system in terms of nutrient management it was recorded higher in farmyard manure @ 12.5 t/ha along with application of 100 per cent recommended dose of fertilizer.

Production and Profitability of Diversified Intensive Cropping System Suitable for North Western Zone of Tamil Nadu

<div style="text-align:justify">Background: India is facing high water stress and it is amongst those with the most fragile and uncertain water resource countries in the world. Crop productivity depends on quality of input supply including seeds, fertilizers, pesticides and supported by irrigation facilities. In India, ground water irrigates more than 61% of net cropped area and much of water being used for irrigating rice crop. The disproportionate water uses for crop production results in poor water productivity. The planning of water resources could be achieved by knowing the crop water requirements in different seasons and productivity of water. Hence, study was taken up to assess the water use and productivity of crops under intensively ground water irrigated watershed. 
 
Methods: A study conducted to assess the water use and productivity of different crops grown in Kothakunta sub watershed (having 206 working bore wells with cultivated area of 203.5 ha) in Siddipet district of Telangana, India during kharif and rabi season of 2008 to 2012, data were collected from 147 farmers on rice, maize, cotton, potato, flora beans and tomato crops grown under irrigation. The water applied to crops was measured by fixing water meters at the end of water delivery pipe and recorded the quantity of water applied each time. For rice crop four plots were taken and for other crops two plots were taken for measuring the water. The water use and productivity were assessed by using standard procedure.&nbsp; 
 
Result: The water productivity was found to be higher to vegetables, which ranged between 2.43 kg of potato, 1.57 kg of beans and 1.26 kg of tomato than cereals (0.79 kg for maize and 0.39 kg for rabi rice) per cubic meter of irrigation water consumed. Water productivity in terms of monetary return (₹) per cubic meter of water consumed was higher with beans (₹ 17.20) in contrast to potato (₹ 16.12). Rice equivalent yield (REY) calculated per cubic meter of irrigation water consumption was very similar to economic return (₹ per cubic meter of water).</div>

<div>Assessment of Crop Water Productivity in an Intensively Cultivated Watershed of Peninsular India</div>

Background: Enhancing productivity while conserving soil and resources is a pre-requisite for achieving sustainable intensification of agro-ecosystems. Diversification by integrating legumes with millets for such high-intensity systems not only offers a potential of improving soil fertility by fixing nitrogen and residue addition but overall enhances proper balance in nutrient cycling, ensures efficient use of land enhancing year-round productivity under irrigated conditions. 
 
Methods: Field experiment was conducted at Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Jammu under irrigated conditions to evaluate high intensity legume-millet-millet cropping sequences. The study consisted of twelve cropping sequences laid down in a randomized block design with three replications, covering a complete annual cycle from rabi to kharif. Legume crop (Pea) was grown as common rabi crop across all treatments, followed by three millets foxtail millet, proso millet and pearl millet in the summer season and four millets finger millet, barnyard millet, little millet and kodo millet during kharif. 
 
Result: Productivity of pea remained statistically unaffected during both years. During the summer season, cropping sequences involving pearl millet recorded significantly higher yields followed by foxtail millet. While among the kharif crops, finger millet outperformed other millet crops in sequence in terms of productivity. Overall, cropping systems integrating foxtail or pearl millet during summer and finger millet during kharif achieved the significantly higher system productivity (14,533.92 and 14,582.74 kg ha-1&nbsp;in the first and second year, respectively) and profitability in terms of benefit : cost ratio of 2.62 and 2.38. Hence, the inclusion of pea-foxtail/pearl millet-finger millet proved to be most productive and economical viable option for irrigated conditions. 
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Performance of Diversified Legume-based High-intensity Cropping Sequence on Productivity and Profitability

Background: There is little information on the effect of interaction between grazing intensity and nitrogen fertilization on the productive characteristics of ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum Lam). The objective of this work was to evaluate the effect of grazing intensity and nitrogen fertilization on the productive characteristics of ryegrass pasture in a crop-livestock integration system.&nbsp; 
 
Methods:&nbsp;A randomized complete block experimental design with a 2 &times; 2 &times; 5 factorial arrangement was used, with three replications. The study factors were two management grass heights, low height (LH = 10 cm) and high height (HH = 25 cm), two different nitrogen fertilization times (NP = nitrogen applied to pasture and NG = nitrogen applied to grains crop) and five evaluation periods.&nbsp; 
 
Result:&nbsp;The forage mass was higher at higher handling heights and with lower stocking rate (HH = 3995 kg DM ha-1). The forage density tended to be higher in the plots with lower grass height and nitrogen fertilization (LH = 193.5 and NP = 184.7 kg DM ha-1 cm-1). The highest accumulation rate (AR) and forage production (FP) was observed in managed pastures with HHNP (AR = 120.4 kg DM ha-1 day-1; FP = 18471 kg DM ha-1). The management of grass with HHNP provided higher forage mass, higher accumulation rate and higher dry matter production in ryegrass pasture, due to an adequate stocking rate.

Production Characteristics of Ryegrass Pasture under Different Intensities of Grazing and Nitrogen Fertilization in Integrated Crop-livestock Systems

<div>Background: Freshwater in sufficient quantity and adequate quality is a prerequisite for human societies and natural ecosystems. To adequately feed 9.3 billion people in 2050, consumptive water use (i.e. transpired water) by all food and fodder crops needs to increase from its present estimated level of 7000 km3/year to 12,586 km3/year. However, fresh water resources are increasingly getting scarce because of increased competition among a multitude of users. Getting agriculture to perform with progressively smaller allocation of renewable water resources will remain a challenge on global scale. To meet the challenge there is an urgent need to improve the crop water productivity to ensure the sustainability of agriculture. 
 
Methods: An experiment was carried out at village Menawali, Hanumangarh, Rajasthan during both kharif and rabi seasons to assess productivity, economics, N-uptake and water use of different crops. An area of 187 ha comprising 25 farmers irrigated by common irrigation channels were selected to collect the information. The information required i.e. soil, crop management, growth, phonological, yields, water balance, N-uptake and water use efficiency of each crops were collected from 15 farmers. Bt-cotton and clusterbean of kharif and wheat and Indian mustard in rabi were prominent crops, cotton-wheat, cotton-mustard, clusterbean-wheat and clusterbean-mustard were major cropping sequences of the study region. 
 
Result: In kharif season, Bt-cotton gave higher economic yields than clusterbean and amongst rabi season crops, economic yields of wheat and mustard were 4255, 1778 kg/ha, respectively. The economic yield of cropping sequences varied from 3741-6514 kg/ha and were higher for cotton-wheat (6218 kg/ha), intermediate for clusterbean-wheat (5785 kg/ha) and lower for cotton-mustard (3741 kg/ha) and clusterbean-mustard (3308 kg/ha). The cotton-wheat (₹1181.2 mm) sequence had highest water use. Clusterbean-wheat cropping system recorded highest water productivity (16.5 kg/ha mm) followed by clusterbean-mustard (14.9 kg/ha mm). The clusterbean-mustard (₹456/ha mm) cropping sequence was most profitable and fetched highest net return followed by clusterbean-wheat (₹383/ha mm).</div>

Assessing Crop and Water Productivity Performance of Different Crops and Cropping Systems

<div style="text-align: justify;">Homestead farming has been the backbone agricultural economy of Kerala but the &nbsp;productivity of the homesteads in Kerala has yet to reach an &nbsp;acceptable &nbsp;level. In this paper the possibility of increasing the contribution of this sector through proper crop planning is sought. The optimum model was developed by using linear programming (LP) technique. The constraints included in the analysis were total area, intercropped area, investment amount and population of each enterprise. The optimum model reveal the scope of 22.83 per cent enhancement in net return as compared to net return from the existing plan. Sensitivity analysis of the optimum model revealed that further enhancement of net return in The agro-ecological region could be achieved by increasing the cropping intensity in the underutilized intercropped area and changing the binding enterprises.</div>

Determination of optimum crop mix for crop cultivation in Kerala homesteads

<div>Background: Bangladesh is one of the densely populated countries in the world. To meet up the increasing food demand there&rsquo;s no alternative to increase the cropping intensity through high yielding and short duration crop varieties. Currently, cropping system of Bangladesh is mostly rice based which is also the staple food. Therefore, farmers which follow rice-rice based cropping patterns are gaining less profit day by day. Contrary, intensive rice culture is depleting soil properties gradually. Thus, to preserve soil health and increase profit pulse and oil seed based cropping patterns are crucial for sustaining a cropping pattern. This study was undertaken to find out a cropping pattern with higher yield and profit in the context of Magura district. 
 
Methods: Five cropping patterns, CP1 = Transplanted Aman rice (cv. Binadhan-7)- Mustard (cv. Binasarisha-9)- Boro rice (cv. Binadhan-14); CP2 = T.Aman (cv. Binadhan-16)-Mustard (cv. Binasarisha-10)- Boro (cv. Binadhan-14); CP3 = T.Aman (cv. Binadhan-17) -Mustard (cv. Binasarisha-10)- Boro (cv. Binadhan-14); CP4 = T.Aman (cv. Binadhan-17)-&nbsp;Lentil (cv. Binamasur-8)- Sesame (cv. Binatil-3) and &nbsp;CP5 (Control) -&nbsp;Aman (cv. Shorna) &ndash; Boro (cv. Heera) - fallow were assessed to identify the most suitable and profitable pattern as well as to enhance the cropping intensity by adding a pulse or oil seed crop between two rice crops. The investigation was conducted at farmer&rsquo;s field of Magura during 2018-19. Block farming method was followed for experiment set up.&nbsp; 
 
Result: It was revealed that, maximum rice equivalent yield (REY) was obtained from CP1 (14.46 t/ha) followed by CP4 (13.52 t/ha), CP3 (13.35 t/ha), CP2 (13.09 t/ha) and CP5 (11.33 t/ha) during one year crop cycle. Highest gross margin (Tk. 1,90,189) and MBCR (1.83) was obtained from the cropping pattern CP4 and the lowest gross margin (Tk. 69,271) and MBCR (1.24) was found with the pattern CP5. Based on the above results it can be suggested that, Aman rice-Lentil-Sesame pattern i.e. CP4 may be a best choice for the farmers of Magura region for the maximum utilization of their land and gaining more profit compared to the other studied cropping patterns.</div>

<div>Yield and Profitability Analysis of Pulse and Oil Seed Based Cropping Patterns against Aman- Boro- Fallow Cropping Systems in Magura</div>

<div style="text-align: justify;">Improved and efficient irrigation water management through precise estimation of crop water requirement has a vital role to play in ensuring food security. However, the crop water requirement data of field crops are not locally available. In view of this, present investigation was aimed at quantifying the crop water requirement of rabi and kharif season crops grown under paired row planting in different agro climatic conditions of Madhya Pradesh. The crop water requirement was calculated based on the already developed crop coefficient and reference evapotranspiration. Daily weather data of 35 years (1979 to 2013) for twenty districts of Madhya Pradesh was collected to determine the reference evapotranspiration using Aquacrop model. The study revealed that the daily ETo increased continuously from 1st SMW to its maximum values during 21st-22nd SMW, thereafter decreased sharply and remains low from 30th to 34th SMW in all selected districts. The highest value of ETo (11.0 mm day-1) was found in Datia at 21st SMW and lowest in Betul i.e. 2.2 mm day-1 at 32nd SMW. The daily water requirement estimates showed that the water requirement of chickpea, wheat and lentil i.e. 1.73 lpd, 0.70 lpd and 0.49 lpd respectively is highest in Jabalpur. Sugarcane has the highest water requirement 13.56 lpd in Narsinghpur during mid season. &nbsp;In all kharif crops cotton has highest water requirement 6.53 lpd in Harda followed by sesame and groundnut i.e. 2.75 lpd and 2.46 lpd respectively in Datia. These results can be used in efficient management of irrigation water under drip irrigation system in selected district of Madhya Pradesh. &nbsp;</div>