Current IssueEditorial BoardOnline First ArticlesArchive
Current IssueEditorial BoardOnline First ArticlesArchive

Review Article

Cropping Kharif Fallows to Enhance Rabi Chickpea Productivity and Cropping Intensity in Rainfed Deep Vertisols: A Comprehensive Review

P
P. Munirathnam1
K
K. Ashok Kumar2,*
J
J. Manjunath3
S
S. Neelima4
B
B.H. Chaithanya5
K
K. Sathish Babu6
M
M. Johnson7
1Department of Agronomy, ANGRAU, Administrative Office, Lam, Guntur-522 034, Andhra Pradesh, India.
2Department of Agronomy, ANGRAU-Regional Agricultural Research Station, Nandyal-518 502, Andhra Pradesh, India.
3Department of Entomology, ANGRAU-Regional Agricultural Research Station, Nandyal-518 502, Andhra Pradesh, India.
4Department of Plant Breeding, ANGRAU-Regional Agricultural Research Station, Nandyal-518 502, Andhra Pradesh, India.
5Department of Plant Pathology, ANGRAU-Regional Agricultural Research Station, Nandyal-518 502, Andhra Pradesh, India.
6Department of Agronomy, ANGRAU-Agricultural College, Mahanandi, Nandyal-518 502, Andhra Pradesh, India.
7Department of Plant Pathology, ADR, Scarce Rainfall Zone, ANGRAU-Regional Agricultural Research Station, Nandyal-518 502, Andhra Pradesh, India.

  • Submitted07-11-2025|

  • Accepted28-01-2026|

  • First Online 16-02-2026|

  • doi 10.18805/LR-5603

ABSTRACT

Rainfed deep Vertisols in semi-arid regions of India are traditionally left fallow during the kharif season to conserve soil moisture for rabi crops, particularly chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.). While this practice ensures residual moisture availability, it significantly limits cropping intensity, land productivity and resource use efficiency. Recent agronomic research has demonstrated the feasibility of cropping kharif fallows with short-duration, low-water-demand crops such as green gram, foxtail millet, sesame and cowpea. These crops can be harvested before the onset of rabi season, leaving sufficient residual moisture for chickpea establishment. Moreover, strategic interventions in land configuration, nutrient management and integrated pest control have enabled successful kharif cropping in Vertisols, mitigating risks associated with waterlogging and poor soil aeration. This review synthesizes multidisciplinary research on kharif crop-chickpea systems, comparing them with conventional fallow-chickpea rotations across agronomic, economic and ecological metrics. Evidence from long-term trials and farmer participatory research reveals that intensified systems improve chickpea equivalent yields, enhance soil carbon sequestration, suppress pest and disease cycles and contribute to climate resilience. Integrated nutrient and residue management further supports soil health and microbial activity, while diversified cropping systems offer better profitability and livelihood security. Across Vertisol regions, inclusion of kharif crops increased chickpea equivalent yield by 22-33% and soil organic carbon by 18-21% compared with traditional fallow-chickpea system, while also improving yield stability and farm profitability. The paper also identifies key research gaps and policy interventions needed to scale sustainable kharif cropping in Vertisol landscapes. By integrating agronomic innovations with ecological and socioeconomic perspectives, this review provides a comprehensive framework for advancing chickpea-based systems and promoting sustainable intensification in rainfed agriculture.

INTRODUCTION

Rainfed agriculture in India occupies nearly 60% of the net sown area and supports the livelihoods of millions of smallholder farmers (Venkateswarlu and Prasad, 2012). Within this domain, deep Vertisols-characterized by high clay content, slow permeability and pronounced shrink-swell behavior-are a dominant soil group in semi-arid regions such as central and southern India. These soils are agriculturally significant but pose unique challenges during the monsoon season due to water logging, poor aeration and crust formation. Consequently, the conventional practice in Vertisol regions has been to leave the land fallow during the kharif season, conserving soil moisture for rabi crops, particularly chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.), which is highly sensitive to terminal drought and soil moisture deficits (Vittal et al., 2005; Sharma, 2001).
       
The fallow-rabi chickpea system, while agronomically conservative, restricts cropping intensity and underutilizes the kharif rainfall. This practice results in low land use efficiency, reduced annual productivity and missed opportunities for ecological benefits such as nutrient cycling and carbon sequestration. With increasing pressure on land resources, climate variability and the need for sustainable intensification, researchers began to explore the feasibility of cropping kharif fallows with short-duration, low-water-demand crops. These include green gram (Vigna radiata), foxtail millet (Setaria italica), sesame (Sesamum indicum) and cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), which can be harvested before the onset of rabi season, leaving sufficient residual moisture for chickpea establishment (Munirathnam and Kumar, 2021; Prabhakar et al., 2022). The transition from fallow to kharif cropping in Vertisols is supported by agronomic innovations such as broad-bed and furrow (BBF) land configuration, improved drainage systems and integrated nutrient and pest management. These systems not only enhance land use efficiency but also contribute to soil health, carbon sequestration and ecological resilience (Salahin et al., 2021; Kumari et al., 2024). Moreover, the inclusion of legumes and cover crops during kharif improves biological nitrogen fixation, microbial activity and soil structure-factors critical for sustaining chickpea productivity. Studies have shown that kharif crop-chickpea systems outperform traditional fallow-chickpea rotations across multiple metrics, including chickpea equivalent yield, sustainability yield index (SYI), net returns and soil organic carbon levels (Wani, 2003; Ghosh et al., 2014; Kumar et al., 2023).
       
In addition to agronomic benefits, kharif cropping offers ecological and socio-economic advantages. Diversified cropping systems suppress pest and disease cycles that often intensify in monoculture fallow-rabi systems. Crop residues from kharif legumes and cereals enhance soil organic matter and improve water retention. Economically, farmers benefit from an additional harvest, reduced input costs per unit yield and improved resilience to climate shocks. Region-specific studies, such as those conducted in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, have demonstrated that kharif cropping does not compromise chickpea yields and, in many cases, enhances overall system productivity (Raghuwanshi et al., 2024).
       
Despite these promising outcomes, adoption of kharif cropping in Vertisols remains limited due to perceived risks, lack of access to suitable crop varieties, inadequate drainage infrastructure and limited extension support. Addressing these barriers requires a combination of research, policy interventions and farmer engagement. Breeding efforts must focus on short-duration, waterlogging-tolerant kharif crops and chickpea varieties adapted to post-kharif conditions. Agronomic packages should be tailored to local soil and climate conditions and institutional support must facilitate access to inputs, credit and markets.
       
This review synthesizes multidisciplinary research on cropping kharif fallows to enhance rabi chickpea productivity and system sustainability. A systematic literature survey was conducted covering peer-reviewed journal articles, long-term experiments, ICAR and ICRISAT research reports and cluster front line demonstrations published primarily between 2000 and 2025. Studies were included if they addressed rainfed Vertisols, evaluated kharif-chickpea sequences and reported agronomic, ecological or socio-economic outcomes.
       
By integrating agronomic, ecological and policy perspectives, the review aims to provide a comprehensive framework for researchers, extension professionals and policymakers to reimagine kharif cropping in Vertisols-not as a risk, but as a strategic opportunity for climate-resilient agriculture. A schematic map showing the distribution of Vertisols in India is provided in Fig 1 (Mandal et al., 2013).

Fig 1: Schematic map showing Vertisols distribution in India under assured and unassured rainfall zones.


       
To synthesize the interactions, among kharif cropping, soil-water processes in Vertisols, rabi chickpea performance and broader sustainability outcomes, a conceptual framework is presented (Fig 2). The framework illustrates how short-duration kharif crops, supported by appropriate land configuration and nutrient management can mitigate Vertisol constraints, enhance residual soil moisture and soil health and ultimately improve productivity and resilience of chickpea-based rainfed systems.

Fig 2: Conceptual framework illustrating kharif crop introduction in deep Vertisols and its interactions with soil-water processes, rabi chickpea performance and sustainability pathways under rainfed conditions.


 
Cropping systems and dominant crops
 
Cropping systems in deep Vertisols of semi-arid India have traditionally revolved around a fallow–rabi chickpea rotation, primarily to conserve soil moisture and avoid waterlogging during the monsoon season. However, this practice significantly limits cropping intensity and land productivity. A long-term (15 year) experiment at ICRISAT demonstrated that cropping during the rainy season is technically feasible and the grain productivity of double cropped sorghum + chickpea and black gram + sorghum sequential systems were higher than their conventional counterparts with rainy season fallow, i.e. fallow + post-rainy sorghum and fallow + post-rainy chickpea (Rao et al., 2015). Recent research has demonstrated the feasibility and benefits of introducing short-duration kharif crops prior to chickpea, thereby enhancing system productivity, soil health and economic returns (Prabhakar et al., 2022; Munirathnam and Kumar, 2021). The selection of kharif crops suitable for Vertisols hinges on their ability to tolerate intermittent water logging, mature early and leave sufficient residual moisture for rabi chickpea. The most promising crops include green gram (Patil et al., 2022), foxtail millet (Munirathnam and Kumar, 2021; Jyotsna et al., 2023), maize (Venkatesh et al., 2023) and sesame (Shahana et al., 2022).
 
Regional variations in cropping systems
 
Cropping systems on Vertisols in India exhibit pronounced regional variation driven by differences in rainfall regime, soil moisture dynamics and market orientation across agro-climatic zones. In central India, particularly in Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra, soybean-chickpea and pigeon pea-chickpea sequences dominate rainfed Vertisol agriculture, reflecting both climatic suitability and strong market demand for pulses. In these regions, the broad-bed and furrow (BBF) land configuration has been widely adopted to alleviate seasonal waterlogging, improve surface drainage and enhance root aeration, resulting in improved crop establishment and yield stability under monsoon rainfall conditions (Prasad et al., 2023; Jadav et al., 2022). In the southern Vertisol zones of Karnataka and the erstwhile Andhra Pradesh region, cotton and pigeon pea-based systems are prevalent, often practiced as intercropping with millets or short-duration legumes to spread risk and optimize resource use. Here, conservation agriculture practices such as reduced tillage, residue retention and diversified cropping are increasingly promoted to mitigate climate variability, conserve soil moisture and sustain productivity under semi-arid conditions (Jat, 2012; Kassam et al., 2019). Eastern Vertisol pockets in Chhattisgarh and parts of Odisha are characterized by maize- and sorghum-based systems, traditionally constrained by excess moisture and suboptimal drainage during the kharif season. Recent research and development efforts emphasize diversification through the integration of pulses and oilseeds to improve system resilience, soil fertility and farm income, supported by improved land shaping and location-specific nutrient management strategies (ICAR-CRIDA, 2016; ICAR, 2020).
       
Recent field experiments conducted at RARS, Nandyal and other regional stations have shown that kharif crop-chickpea systems outperform fallow-chickpea rotations across multiple agronomic and economic metrics. The inclusion of kharif crops improves chickpea equivalent yield (CEY), sustainability yield index (SYI) and soil organic carbon (SOC) levels (Table 1) (Munirathnam and Kumar, 2021).

Table 1: Comparative performance of cropping systems in deep Vertisols.


       
These systems enhance nutrient cycling, suppress weeds and pests and improve soil structure through root biomass and residue incorporation. Notably, green gram-chickpea systems recorded the highest production use efficiency and SYI, attributed to biological nitrogen fixation and improved soil carbon status (Prabhakar et al., 2022).
       
Relative to the traditional fallow-chickpea system, kharif-based cropping systems resulted in a 22-33% increase in chickpea equivalent yield, with the highest improvement observed under green gram-chickpea followed by cowpea-chickpea and foxtail millet-chickpea systems (Table 1).
       
Higher system productivity translated into substantially greater net returns, ranging from Rs.39,000 to 42,000/ha under kharif -based systems compared with Rs.28,000/ha under fallow-chickpea (Table 1).
 
Scope for introducing preceding kharif crops
 
The rationale for leaving land fallow in kharif is soil moisture conservation. However, several studies have shown that early-maturing crops (60-70 days) can utilize the early monsoon rainfall without adversely affecting rabi chickpea yields (Chaudhary et al., 2020). Short-duration pulses such as mungbean (Vigna radiata), urdbean (Vigna mungo) and cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) are well suited to rainfed kharif systems due to their low water requirement, early maturity and capacity for biological nitrogen fixation, which enhances soil fertility and benefits succeeding crops (Singh and Praharaj, 2011; Kermah et al., 2018). In addition, drought-tolerant cereals such as sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) and pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) have been widely evaluated for their adaptability to semi-arid rainfed environments and their role in crop diversification and system intensification (Bandyopadhyay et al., 2017).
 
Soil and water management
 
Land configuration plays a pivotal role in mitigating waterlogging and improving root zone aeration. Among the most effective techniques is the Broad-Bed and Furrow (BBF) system, which elevates planting beds and channels excess water into furrows (Khambalkar et al., 2014). Studies conducted in Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh have shown that BBF improves chickpea establishment following kharif crops by enhancing infiltration and reducing crust formation (Prabhakar et al., 2022). Other configurations include raised beds, which facilitate drainage and reduce compaction; Contour bunding, which conserves moisture and minimizes runoff; and Graded furrows, which direct water flow and prevent stagnation (Autkar et al., 2006; Verma et al., 2017).
       
Techniques such as mulching with crop residues, cover cropping and ridge–furrow planting have proven effective in retaining soil moisture and improving infiltration rates. Mulching reduces evaporation and moderates soil temperature. Cover crops like cowpea and green gram enhance soil structure and microbial activity. Ridge-furrow systems optimize water distribution and root zone moisture.
       
Effective drainage is essential for kharif cropping in Vertisols. Poorly drained soils lead to anaerobic conditions, root diseases and delayed sowing. Strategies include: Surface drainage channels to remove excess water. Early sowing before peak monsoon to avoid saturation. Subsurface drainage (where feasible) to improve aeration and reduce waterlogging risk.
       
Kharif cropping improves several physical properties of Vertisols like aggregate stability, increases due to root biomass and residue incorporation; Bulk density, which decreases, enhancing root penetration; and Porosity and infiltration improve, facilitating moisture retention for rabi crops.
 
Nutrient management
 
Kharif  legumes such as green gram/ cowpea/soybean contribute to biological nitrogen fixation, enriching the soil with available nitrogen for the succeeding chickpea crop. (Patil et al., 2022; Shah et al., 2025). Cereals like foxtail millet and oilseeds like sesame mobilize phosphorus and micronutrients from deeper soil layers, improving nutrient availability in the rhizosphere. The residual effects of these crops are particularly beneficial in Vertisols, where nutrient stratification and poor mobility can limit uptake. Field studies in Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra have shown that cropping kharif fallows with green gram or foxtail millet leads to higher chickpea yields and improved nutrient use efficiency compared to fallow-chickpea systems (Prabhakar et al., 2022; Munirathnam and Kumar, 2021). Sidhu et al., (2003) reported that mung bean residue incorporation increased subsequent maize crop yield by 39%.
       
Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) combines organic amendments, biofertilizers and inorganic fertilizers to optimize nutrient availability and sustain soil health. In Vertisols, INM has proven effective in maintaining productivity under intensive cropping systems (Wu and Ma, 2015). Gabhane et al., (2022) reported that application of 50% recommended nitrogen dose (RDN) through farmyard manure (FYM) or gliricidia, combined with 50% RDN and full doses of phosphorus and potassium through inorganic sources, significantly improved crop yields and soil fertility under cotton + green gram intercropping in Vertisols. Similar approaches can be adapted for kharif–chickpea systems to balance nutrient inputs and reduce dependency on chemical fertilizers. Key INM components include Organic amendments like FYM, compost and green manures improve soil structure, water retention and microbial activity; Biofertilizers such as Rhizobium, phosphate-solubilizing bacteria (PSB) and mycorrhizae enhance nutrient uptake and root development and Balanced fertilization, based on soil testing, tailored nutrient doses prevent deficiencies and optimize crop response.
       
Residue incorporation from kharif crops contributes to soil organic carbon, improves cation exchange capacity and supports microbial biomass (Ladha et al., 2022). Legume residues, in particular, decompose rapidly (Jibat et al., 2014) and release nutrients synchronously with chickpea demand. Residue retention also enhances soil aggregation and reduces erosion, which is critical in Vertisols prone to surface sealing and runoff (Page et al., 2019). Conservation tillage combined with residue management has shown positive effects on nutrient availability (Jayaraman et al., 2021) and chickpea performance (Karuna et al., 2024).
       
Micronutrient deficiencies-especially of zinc (Zn), boron (B) and sulfur (S)-are increasingly reported in intensively cultivated Vertisols (Palmer et al., 2023). Site-specific nutrient management (SSNM) trials in Chhattisgarh identified nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur as the most limiting nutrients, followed by Zn and B (Sushma and Sao, 2018).
 
Pest and disease dynamics
 
Kharif cropping introduces plant diversity that interferes with pest life cycles and reduces host continuity (Han-ming et al., 2019). In fallow systems, soil-borne pathogens such as Fusarium oxysporum sp. ciceri (causing Fusarium wilt) and Rhizoctonia bataticola (causing dry root rot) tend to accumulate due to the absence of crop rotation, leading to severe yield losses, while collar rot (Sclerotium rolfsii) and wet root rot (Rhizoctonia solani) also thrive in monocropped or fallow-chickpea fields and foliar diseases such as Ascochyta blight (Ascochyta rabiei), Botrytis gray mold (Botrytis cinerea), anthracnose (Colletotrichum spp.) and Sclerotinia stem rot (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum) spread more rapidly in monoculture systems. Also, insect pests, particularly the pod borer (Helicoverpa armigera), are more destructive in fallow chickpea fields where natural predator populations are scarce and cutworms and bruchids also show higher prevalence in monocropped systems, while weeds in fallow land act as alternate hosts, sustaining pest populations and exacerbating the problem, making fallow chickpea highly vulnerable to biotic stress (Saravanan and Amanath, 2025). Whereas in kharif cropping-chickpea system reduces pest pressure by breaking insect life cycles, thereby lowering pod borer outbreaks. Pande et al., (2012) observed that chickpea grown after cereals or pulses experiences lower disease incidence compared to chickpea grown after fallow. In addition, Fusarium wilt incidence was significantly reduced in sorghum/maize-chickpea compared to fallow (Priyanka and Yogita, 2022). Furthermore, research studies indicated that rice-fallow chickpea systems in the Indo-Gangetic plains suffered from higher pest and disease pressure compared to rotational systems (Hedayetullah, 2023).
       
The comparative analysis of cropping systems reveals that fallow chickpea has high pest and disease pressure, with key issues including fusarium wilt, root rots and pod borer outbreaks, while chickpea after foxtail millet, maize, or jowar shows low pest and disease pressure. In conclusion, fallow-chickpea systems are more vulnerable to pests and diseases due to pathogen buildup and uninterrupted pest cycles, while rotational cropping with foxtail millet, maize, jowar and pulses significantly reduces pest and disease incidence. Furthermore, integrated pest management strategies are essential to sustain chickpea productivity in diverse agro-ecological zones, with evidence from multiple studies confirming that non-fallow systems consistently outperform fallow systems in terms of pest and disease management, soil health and yield stability.
 
Yield gaps and productivity trends
 
Multiple studies across central and southern India have demonstrated that kharif crop-chickpea systems consistently outperform traditional fallow-chickpea rotations. Chickpea yields remain stable or improve when preceded by green gram, foxtail millet, or cowpea, provided appropriate land configuration and moisture conservation practices are followed (Munirathnam and Kumar, 2021). Cluster Frontline Demonstrations (CFLDs) conducted in Vertisol regions have shown that improved kharif management leads to higher chickpea equivalent yields (CEY) and better sustainability yield index (SYI). For instance, green gram-chickpea systems recorded CEY values of 2400-2600 kg/ha, compared to 1800 kg/ha in fallow-chickpea systems (Mohan et al., 2019). Yield gaps are defined as the difference between potential and actual yields under farmer-managed conditions. Similar trends were observed in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, where kharif cropping improved soil moisture and nutrient availability for chickpea.
       
Long-term trials conducted by ICRISAT and CRIDA over 5-7 years have shown that kharif cropping enhances system resilience and stabilizes chickpea yields under variable rainfall conditions. These systems also improve soil health indicators such as organic carbon, microbial biomass and aggregate stability.
 
Economic and efficiency gains
 
Beyond yield, kharif cropping improves economic returns and input use efficiency. Studies show that net returns in kharif–chickpea systems are 30-50% higher than in fallow-chickpea systems, due to additional kharif harvest and improved chickpea performance (Saila and Kumar, 2009; Meena et al., 2021). Land use efficiency (LUE) also improves, as the same land supports two crops per year instead of one (Jat et al., 2011; Dhaka et al., 2025a). This intensification contributes to better livelihood outcomes and reduces per-unit production costs.
 
Carbon sequestration and sustainability
 
Vertisols are known for their high clay content and capacity to stabilize organic carbon (Smith et al., 2015; Jadhav et al., 2024), but their SOC levels decline rapidly under continuous monoculture and residue removal (Jha et al., 2020). Inclusion of kharif crops-especially legumes like green gram and cowpea-contributes to both labile and stable carbon pools through root biomass and leaf litter (Rai et al., 2023; Singh and Singh, 2025). Studies from Akola and Bhopal have shown that conservation tillage combined with kharif cropping increases total carbon input by 30-40% over conventional fallow systems. A long-term study by Raghuwanshi et al., (2024) in central India revealed that kharif cropping under no-tillage conditions significantly improved SOC, aggregate stability and soil penetration resistance. Soybean-chickpea and maize-gram systems recorded higher carbon sequestration rates (Anupama et al., 2025) compared to fallow-chickpea rotations.
       
Sustainability in cropping systems is commonly assessed using integrative indicators such as the Sustainability Yield Index (SYI) (Wanjari et al., 2004), which reflects yield stability over time; land use efficiency (LUE), which captures productivity per unit area and time (Marcello et al., 2022) and carbon footprint reduction, which indicates net mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions (Xing and Wang, 2024). Across these indicators, kharif-chickpea cropping systems consistently outperform the traditional fallow-chickpea system, demonstrating both higher productivity and greater system resilience (Salakinkop, 2024). Among the evaluated systems, green gram-chickpea recorded particularly high sustainability performance, with SYI values reaching 0.68 and LUE improvements of 35-40%. These gains are largely attributed to enhanced biomass inputs, improved soil cover and reduced tillage intensity during the kharif season, which collectively contribute to better resource-use efficiency and soil health (Prabhakar et al., 2022).
       
Kharif cropping enhances climate resilience in rainfed Vertisol systems by buffering rainfall variability through improved soil infiltration and water retention (Kamboj et al., 2025; Sawant et al., 2025), reducing erosion via continuous ground cover and root-mediated soil stabilization and enhancing on-farm biodiversity through crop diversification and microbial enrichment. Beyond these physical and biological functions, kharif-based systems support a range of ecosystem services, including improved nutrient cycling, enhanced pollinator habitat and suppression of pest and disease pressures (Desalegn and Abate, 2021; Mwila et al., 2021). The adoption of conservation agriculture practices-particularly residue retention and reduced tillage-further strengthens these benefits by improving soil structure, moderating soil temperature and increasing system resilience to climatic stress (Jayaraman et al., 2021). Collectively, these processes contribute to greater carbon sequestration and overall system sustainability in Vertisols, as reflected in higher soil organic carbon levels, reduced erosion risk and improved productivity over time (Singh et al., 2025) (Table 2).

Table 2: Carbon sequestration and sustainability metrics in Vertisol cropping system.


 
Policy and socioeconomic dimensions
 
Access to quality inputs-such as seeds of short-duration kharif crops, biofertilizers and land configuration implements-is essential for system intensification. Government schemes like the National Food Security Mission (NFSM) and Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY) have supported pulses and oilseeds through seed minikits, demonstrations and training. However, these programmes often focus on rabi crops, with limited emphasis on kharif diversification. Credit access remains a barrier, especially for smallholders in Vertisol regions. Seasonal cash flow constraints and lack of collateral limit investment in kharif cropping. Strengthening institutional credit and promoting self-help groups (SHGs) and Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) can improve input adoption and reduce financial risk. Market access for kharif crops is uneven. While chickpea benefits from Minimum Support Price (MSP) and procurement mechanisms, kharif millets, pulses and oilseeds often lack assured markets. This discourages farmers from investing in kharif cropping despite its agronomic benefits. Developing value chains for green gram, sesame and foxtail millet-including aggregation, processing and branding-can enhance profitability. FPOs play a critical role in linking producers to buyers, negotiating prices and reducing transaction costs. Digital platforms and e-NAM (National Agriculture Market) offer additional avenues for market integration (Chand et al., 2016; Singh et al., 2021; Chauhan and Rathore, 2025). Kharif cropping increases labor demand, particularly during land preparation, sowing and harvesting. This has implications for household labor allocation and gender roles. Studies in Karnataka and Maharashtra show that women contribute significantly to kharif operations, especially in weeding and harvesting, yet often lack decision-making power and access to training (Ekatpure, 2011; Sunitha et al., 2018).
       
Knowledge gaps and risk perceptions hinder kharif cropping in Vertisols. Many farmers associate kharif cultivation with waterlogging, crop failure and reduced chickpea yields. Participatory extension approaches-such as Farmer Field Schools (FFS), on-farm trials and ICT-based advisories-can address these concerns and build confidence. ICRISAT’s watershed-based interventions have demonstrated that community engagement and localized training improve adoption of kharif cropping and conservation practices. Integrating agronomic recommendations with socioeconomic realities ensures relevance and scalability.
       
Scaling kharif cropping in deep Vertisols requires a shift from rabi-centric support toward year-round system intensification. Policy incentives such as MSP, crop insurance and targeted input support can reduce risk and promote kharif diversification, while investments in drainage infrastructure and land configuration tools are essential to overcome waterlogging constraints. Strengthening Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) can improve access to inputs and markets and gender-sensitive extension approaches are crucial given women’s significant role in kharif operations (Birthal et al., 2015). Together, these measures can transform kharif cropping from a perceived risk into a viable pathway for sustainable intensification and livelihood enhancement. The adoption of kharif cropping in Vertisols is strongly shaped by socio-economic and institutional factors, which are summarized in Table 3.

Table 3: Socio-economic factors influencing kharif cropping adoption in Vertisols.


 
Future directions and research gaps
 
Despite growing evidence supporting kharif cropping in deep Vertisols, several research and implementation gaps remain that limit widespread adoption and long-term sustainability. Addressing these gaps requires a multi-disciplinary approach that integrates agronomy, soil science, climate resilience, socio-economics and policy innovation. One of the most critical needs is the development of short-duration, waterlogging-tolerant kharif crops that can mature before rabi sowing while withstanding early monsoon stress. For chickpea, breeding efforts must focus on varieties adapted to post-kharif conditions, with improved root architecture, drought tolerance and disease resistance. ICRISAT’s work on Vertisols has emphasized the importance of matching genotype to micro-environment, especially in double cropping systems. Participatory varietal selection (PVS) and decentralized trials can accelerate adoption of region-specific cultivars.
       
Although kharif cropping has been shown to improve soil organic carbon (SOC) in Vertisols, its long-term impacts on carbon sequestration, nutrient cycling and soil microbial dynamics remain insufficiently quantified. Addressing this gap requires the development of standardized soil health indicators applicable across Vertisol regions, along with robust carbon budgeting models that compare different kharif-rabi cropping sequences. In addition, advanced microbial profiling is needed to better understand the biological regulation of pests and diseases and their interactions with soil carbon dynamics. These assessments should be embedded within long-term conservation agriculture trials to evaluate trade-offs among tillage intensity, residue retention and carbon stabilization. Concurrently, climate variability-particularly erratic monsoon onset, intra-seasonal dry spells and extreme rainfall events-poses significant risks to kharif cropping, underscoring the need for integrated climate risk assessment and adaptive agronomic strategies to enhance system resilience.
       
Future research should focus on agro-climatic zoning to refine kharif crop suitability in Vertisols and on developing decision support tools for optimizing sowing windows, crop choice and contingency planning under delayed monsoon or excess rainfall conditions. Recent ICAR agro-advisories for farmers (2025) highlight the importance of localized, real-time, weather-based agro-advisory systems to support adaptive decision-making in rainfed systems. Equally critical is a deeper assessment of the economic viability of kharif-chickpea systems, including cost–benefit analysis of land configuration and drainage practices, risk-return modeling under rainfall and price variability and behavioral studies on farmer perceptions and risk aversion. Evidence from Cluster Frontline Demonstrations suggests that adoption is strongly influenced by perceived profitability and extension support, underscoring the need for similar evaluations in Vertisol regions. Scaling kharif cropping will therefore require institutional innovations beyond demonstrations, including landscape-level drainage planning, FPO-led seed systems, digital extension platforms and adaptation of watershed-based approaches for kharif-chickpea systems with strong policy and community support.

CONCLUSION

Cropping kharif fallows in deep Vertisols represents a transformative opportunity for enhancing rabi chickpea productivity, improving land use efficiency and advancing sustainable intensification in rainfed agriculture. Traditionally fallowed to conserve moisture, Vertisols have long been underutilized during the monsoon season due to concerns over waterlogging and operational constraints. However, recent agronomic innovations-such as broad-bed furrow land configuration, short-duration kharif crops, integrated nutrient and pest management and conservation agriculture-have demonstrated that kharif cropping is not only feasible but highly beneficial.
       
Evidence from long-term trials, participatory research and field demonstrations confirms that kharif crop-chickpea systems outperform conventional fallow-chickpea rotations across agronomic, economic and ecological metrics. These systems enhance soil organic carbon, suppress pest and disease cycles, improve nutrient cycling and contribute to climate resilience. Moreover, they offer higher chickpea equivalent yields, better sustainability yield indices and increased profitability for smallholder farmers.
       
Despite these advantages, adoption remains constrained by limited access to inputs, inadequate drainage infrastructure, market uncertainties and risk perceptions. Addressing these challenges requires targeted breeding programs, robust soil health monitoring, climate-adaptive agronomy and inclusive policy frameworks. Institutional innovations-such as FPO-led seed systems, digital extension platforms and watershed-based scaling models-can accelerate uptake and ensure equitable benefits.
       
This review underscores the need to reframe kharif cropping in Vertisols not as a risk, but as a strategic pathway toward resilient, productive and sustainable chickpea-based systems. With coordinated research, policy support and farmer engagement, kharif cropping can become a potential cornerstone of climate-smart agriculture in India’s rainfed heartlands.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors here by declare that there are no conflicts of interest.

REFERENCES


  1. Anupama, G.V., Abhishek, D., Thomas, F., Mequanint, M., Girish, C., Cuba, P., Kumar, A., Ajay, S. and Roja, M. (2025). Integrating carbon sequestration and yield optimization in Indian cropping systems. Sustainable Futures. 10: 101293.

  2. Autkar, K.S., Gawande, R.L., Vyas, J.S. and Ghodpage, R.M. (2006). Effect of land configuration on yield and water use efficiency of soybean in Vertisols of Vidarbha (M.S.). Annals of Plant Physiology. 20: 158-159.

  3. Bandyopadhyay, T., Muthamilarasan, M. and Prasad, M. (2017). Millets for next generation climate-smart agriculture. Frontiers in Plant Science. 8: 1266. 

  4. Birthal, P., Roy, D. and Negi, D. (2015). Assessing the impact of crop diversification on farm poverty in India. World Development. 72: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2015.02.015.

  5. Chand, R. (2016). E-platform for National Agricultural market. Economic and Political Weekly. 47(52): 53-63.

  6. Chaudhary, R., Subhaprada, D., Koushik, S. and Gulati, J.M.N. (2020). Pulses in rice-fallow: A way towards achieving nutritional security: A review. Agricultural Reviews. 41(3): 264-271. doi: 10.18805/ag.R-2013.

  7. Chauhan, S. and Rathore, S. (2025). Implementation, impact and challenges of eNAM in agricultural markets- A systematic literature review (SLR). International Journal of Scientific Research in Engineering and Management. 9: 1-33. 

  8. Desalegn, H. and Abate, M. (2021). The adoption impact of wheat- chickpea double cropping on yield and farm income of smallholder farmers in central highlands of Ethiopia: The case of Becho district. Heliyon. 7(6): e07203.

  9. Dhaka, A.K., Singh, B., Kamal, Jat, R.D., Bishnoi, K.D., Kumar, A. (2025). Relative economic profitability of millet based crop rotations with chickpea in Hisar district of Haryana. Legume Research. 48(9): 1585-1593. doi: 10.18805/LR-5358.

  10. Dhaka, A.K., Jat, R.D., Singh, B., Dhaka, P., Kumar, S. and Kumar, S. (2025a). Relative yield, competition, land use and economic performance of chickpea-based intercropping systems. Legume Research. 48(10): 1721-1728. doi: 10.18805/LR-5141.

  11. Ekatpure, M.S., Kale, T.M., Bodake, D.H. and Antwal, N.P. (2011). Study of the participation of farm women in production of vermicompost, Maharashtra. Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute. 6(1): 14-16.

  12. Gabhane, V.V., Ghare, A. and Ramteke, P. (2022). Periodic changes in carbon and nitrogen in Vertisols under organic, inorganic and integrated nutrient management. Emergent Life Sciences Research. 8: 64-71.

  13. Ghosh, P.K., Kumar, N., Venkatesh, M.S., Hazra, K. and Nadarajan, N. (2014). Resource Conservation Technology in Pulses. ISBN: 978-81-7233-885-5.

  14. Han-ming, H.E., Li-na, L.I.U., Shahzad, M., Nawaz, H.B., Yi, W., Jing, Y. and Cheng-yun, L.I. (2019). Crop diversity and pest management in sustainable agriculture. Journal of Integrative Agriculture. 18(9): 1945-1952.

  15. Hedayetullah, M. (2023). Yield advantages of new technologies of chickpea in rice-fallow of indo-gangetic plains zone of West Bengal. Irish Interdisciplinary Journal of Science and Research. 7(3): 17-21.

  16. ICAR. (2020). Cropping Systems and Resource Management in Rainfed Areas of India. Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi.

  17. ICAR-CRIDA. (2016). District-level Contingency Plans for Climate Resilient Agriculture. Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad.

  18. Jadav, M.L., Raidas, D.K., Kumawat, N., Girothia, O.P., Bhagat, D.V. and Choudhary, S.K. (2022). Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L.) growth, yield and monetary influence by drip irrigation and mulch in Vertisols of Madhya Pradesh. Legume Research. 45(7): 853-859. doi: 10.18805/LR- 4701.

  19. Jadhav, K.P., Nayan, A., Tapan, J.P., Debasis, G., Ruma, D., Mahesh, C.M., Manoj, S., Rajeev, R. and Pooja, T. (2024). Role of clay-humus complexes in soil organic carbon stabilization across paddy soils in diverse Indian soil orders. International Journal of Plant and Soil Science. 36(11): 527-544.

  20. Jat, H.S., Meena, L.R., Mann, J.S., Roop, C., Subhash, C. and Sharma, S. (2011). Relative efficiency of different cropping sequences in a farmers participatory research programme in semi-arid agro-ecosystem of Rajasthan. Indian Journal of Agronomy. 56(4): 321-327.

  21. Jat, R.A., Wani, S.P. and Sahrawat, K.L. (2012). Chapter Four- Conservation Agriculture in the Semi-Arid Tropics: Prospects and Problems, [Editor(s): Donald L. Sparks], Advances in Agronomy, Academic Press. 17: 191-273.

  22. Jayaraman, S., Dang, Y.P., Naorem, A., Page, K.L. and Dalal, R.C. (2021). Conservation agriculture as a system to enhance ecosystem services. Agriculture. 11(8): 718. 

  23. Jayaraman, S., Sinha, N., Mohanty, M., Hati, K., Chaudhary, R., Shukla, A., Shirale, A., Sathyaseelan, N., Naorem, A., Rasmi, I., Biswas, A., Patra, A. Srinivasrao, Ch. and Dalal, R. (2021). Conservation tillage, residue management and crop rotation effects on soil major and micro-nutrients in semi-arid Vertisols of India. Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition. 21: 523-535.

  24. Jha, P., Hati, K.M., Dalal, R.C., Dang, Y.P., Kopittke, P.M. and Neal, W.M. (2020). Soil carbon and nitrogen dynamics in a Vertisol following 50/ years of no-tillage, crop stubble retention and nitrogen fertilization. Geoderma. 358: 113996.

  25. Jibat, G., Wolde-meskel, E. and Bakken, L. (2014). Unexpected high decomposition of legume residues in dry season soils from tropical coffee plantations and crop lands. Agronomy for Sustainable Development. 34. 10.1007/ s13593-013-0172-7.

  26. Jyotsna, K.M., Nayak, B.S., Priya, B.T., Narasimhulu, T. and Venkateswarlu, N.C. (2023). Evaluation of short duration crops prior to bengal gram. Metszet Journal. 8(11): 2061-2710.

  27. Kamboj, E., Dhaka, K. A., Kumar, S., Singh, B., Hooda, S.V. and Kamal. (2025). Growth and yield performance of chickpea (Cicer arietinum) as influenced by irrigation levels and genotypes: A review. Agricultural Reviews. 46(4): 663- 670. doi: 10.18805/ag.R-2693.

  28. Karuna, R., Gabhane, V.V., Monika S.B., Ankita, D., Patode, R.S., Ganvir, M.M. and Sonune, B.A. (2024). Impact of conservation tillage on soil fertility, productivity and nutrient uptake by chickpea in soybean-chickpea sequence on Vertisols.  International Journal of Plant and Soil Science. 36(9): 423-429.

  29. Kassam, A., Friedrich, T., Derpsch, R. and Kienzle, J. (2019). Global spread of conservation agriculture. International Journal of Environmental Studies. 76(1): 29-51.

  30. Kermah, M., Franke, A.C., Adjei-Nsiah, S., Ahiabor, B.D.K., Abaidoo, R.C. and Giller, K.E. (2018). N2-fixation and N contribution by grain legumes under different soil fertility status and cropping systems in the Guinea Savanna of Northern Ghana. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment. 261: 201-210.

  31. Khambalkar, V.P., Waghmare, N.N., Gajakos, A.V., Karale, D.S. and Kankal, U.S. (2014). Performance of broad bed- furrow planter in winter season of dryland crops. International Agricultural Engineering Journal. 23: 14-22.

  32. Kumar, S., Gopinath, K.A., Sheoran, S., Meena, R.S., Srinivasarao, C., Bedwal, S., Jangir, C.K., Mrunalini, K., Jat, R. and Praharaj, C.S. (2023). Pulse-based cropping systems for soil health restoration, resources conservation and nutritional and environmental security in rainfed agroecosystems. Frontiers in Microbiology. 3(13): 1041124. 

  33. Kumari, V.V., Balloi, S., Kumar, M., Ramana, D., Prabhakar, M., Osman, M., Indoria, A., Manjunath, M., Maruthi,V., Chary, G.R., Chandran, M.S., Gopinath, K., Venkatesh, G., Rao, M., Singh,V. and Timsina, J. (2024). Diversified cropping systems for reducing soil erosion and nutrient loss and for increasing crop productivity and profitability in rainfed environments.  Agricultural Systems. 217: 103919.

  34. Ladha, J.K., Mark, B., Peoples, P., Reddy, M., Biswas, J.C., Alan, B., Jat, M.L. and Timothy, J.K. (2022). Biological nitrogen fixation and prospects for ecological intensification in cereal-based cropping systems. Field Crops Research. 283: 108541.

  35. Mandal, K.G., Hati, K., Mishra, A.K., Bandyopadhyay, K.K. and Tripathi, A. (2013). Land surface modification and crop diversification for enhancing productivity of a Vertisol. International Journal of Plant Production. 7: 455-472.

  36. Marcello, S., Michele, M., Sergio, F., Pietro, F., Daniele, E., Pierpaolo, T., Martino, P. and Thomas, K. (2022). Land use efficiency of functional urban areas: Global pattern and evolution of development trajectories. Habitat International. 123: 102543.

  37. Meena, S.L., Bana, R.S., Sepat, S. and Dass, A. (2021). System productivity and economics as influenced by cropping system and nutrient management. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 91(10): 1470-1475.

  38. Mohan, M.M., Devi, S.R. and Veeraiah, A. (2019). Doubling farmers income through foxtail-millet chickpea cropping sequence under rainfed vertisols of Rayalaseema region of Andhra Pradesh. International Journal of Agriculture Sciences. 11(19): 9122-9124.

  39. Munirathnam, P. and Kumar, K.A. (2021). Inclusion effect of foxtail millet in fallow-chickpea production system: An approach to improve land productivity in Vertisols under variable water regimes. Agricultural Reviews. 43(4): 525-528. doi: 10.18805/ag.R-2150.

  40. Mwila, M., Mhlanga, B. and Thierfelder, C. (2021). Intensifying cropping systems through doubled-up legumes in Eastern Zambia. Scientific Reports. 11: 8101. 

  41. Page, K.L., Yash, P., Dang, R.C., Dalal, S.R., Greg, T., Weijin, W., John, P. and Thompson. (2019). Changes in soil water storage with no-tillage and crop residue retention on a Vertisol: Impact on productivity and profitability over a 50 year period. Soil and Tillage Research. 194: 104319.

  42. Palmer, B., Christopher, G., Gunasekhar, N. and Nilantha, H. (2023). Changes in micronutrient concentrations under minimum tillage and cotton-based crop rotations in irrigated Vertisols. Soil and Tillage Research. 228: 105626.

  43. Pande, S., Sharma, M., Ghosh, R., Rameshwar, T. and Reddy, D.R. (2012). Chickpea Diseases and Insect-Pest Management.  ICRISAT Publications.

  44. Patil, R.H., Kumbar, P. and Dhage, S.S. (2022). Greengram based cropping sequence for sustainability under changing climate in semi-arid part of Karnataka, India. Legume Research. 45(7): 893-897. doi: 10.18805/LR-4457.

  45. Patil, G.A., Halepyati A.S. and Chittapur, B.M. (2022). Energy use and economic analysis for achieving target yield through site specific nutrient management in soybean (Glycine max L.)-chickpea cropping system (Cicer arietinum L.). Legume Research. 45(7): 844-852. doi: 10.18805/LR-4371.

  46. Prabhakar, K., Sumathi, V., Krishna, T., Sudhakar, P. and Basha, S. (2022). Promising chickpea based cropping systems for Vertisols of Andhra Pradesh. Indian Journal of Agricultural Research. 59(1): 56-61. doi: 10.18805/IJARe.A-5898.

  47. Prasad, J.K., Swain, D.K. and Wani, S.P. (2023). Developing climate change agro-adaptation strategies through field experiments and simulation analyses for sustainable sorghum production in semi-arid tropics of India. Agricultural Water Management. 286: 108399.

  48. Priyanka, K.M. and Yogita, N.A. (2022). Diseases of chickpea and their management. Just Agriculture Newsletter. 3(2): 1-3.

  49. Raghuwanshi, S., Chaudhary, R.S., Sinha, N.K. and Trivedi, S.K. (2024). Effect of conservation agriculture on soil organic carbon and yield of cropping systems in Vertisols of central India. Emergent Life Sciences Research. 10(1): 129-139.

  50. Rai, A.K., Basak, N., Dixit, A.K., Rai, S.K., Das, S.K., Singh, J.B., Kumar, S., Kumar T.K., Chandra, P., Sundha, P. and Bedwal, S. (2023). Changes in soil microbial biomass and organic C pools improve the sustainability of perennial grass and legume system under organic nutrient management.  Frontiers in Microbiology. 14: 1173986. 

  51. Rao, V.N., Meinke, H., Craufurd, P.Q., Parsons, D., Kropff, M.J., Anten, P.R.N., Wani, S.P. and Rego, T.J. (2015). Strategic double cropping on Vertisols: A viable rainfed cropping option in the Indian SAT to increase productivity and reduce risk. European Journal of Agronomy. 62: 26-37.

  52. Saila, S.P.S. and Kumar, K.A. (2009). Effect of supplemental irrigation on yield of rabi crops in soybean-sunflower and sunflower- chickpea cropping systems. Journal of Oilseeds Research.  26: 350-352.

  53. Salahin, N., Alam, M.K., Ahmed, S., Jahiruddin, M., Gaber, A., Alsanie, W.F., Hossain, R and Bell, W. (2021). Carbon and nitrogen mineralization in dark grey calcareous flood plain soil is influenced by tillage practices and residue retention. Plants. 10(8): 1650.

  54. Salakinkop, S.R., Talekar, S.C., Patil, C.R., Patil, S.B., Jat, S.L., Iliger, K.S., Manjulatha, G., Harlapur, S.I. and Kachapur, R.M. (2024). Sustainable intensification of climate-resilient maize-chickpea system in semi-arid tropics through assessing factor productivity. Scientific Reports. 14(1): 3958.

  55. Saravanan, S. and Amanath, S. (2025). Pests and diseases in chickpea and integrated pest management (IPM). Agri Magazine. 2(5): 335-337.

  56. Sawant, C., Singh, K., Gupta, A. Meena, B., Fagodiya, R., Singh, A. and Vishwakarma, A., Khadatkar, A., Magar, A. and Chaudhary, V.P. (2025). Conservation agricultural practices enhance food-water-economics nexus and mitigate greenhouse gas emissions in maize (Zea mays L.)- chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) cropping system in central high lands of India. International Journal of Plant Production.  20: 10.1007/s42106-025-00393-9.

  57. Shah, S.N., Chaudhari, V.D., Shroff, J.C., Patel, V.J. and Patel A.P. (2025). Nutrient management through organic sources in chickpea. Legume Research. 48(9): 1558-1561. doi: 10.18805/LR-5165.

  58. Shahana, F., Goverdhan, M., Sridevi, S. and Joseph, B. (2022). Identification of economically viable cropping systems for Vertisols of Northern Telangana, India: A recent study. Research Developments in Science and Technology.  4: 142-150.

  59. Sharma, R.A. (2001). Conservation of natural resources and their efficient utilization for enhanced sustainable productivity and black soil regions of central India-A review: Agricultural Reviews. 22(3and4): 183-193.

  60. Sidhu, A.S., Sekhon, N.K., Thind, S.S. and Hira, G.S. (2003). Residue management for sustainable crop production in summer moong-maize-wheat sequence. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture. 22(2): 43-54.

  61. Singh, D., Patil, C. and Meena, S. (2021). Impact of online agriculture marketing policy-e-NAM (Electronic national agriculture market) on prices and arrivals of agricultural commodities in Punjab, India. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences. 10: 10-12.

  62. Singh, K. and Praharaj, C. (2011). Nutrient management strategies for pulse-based production systems in rainfed regions of India. Indian Journal of Fertilizers. 7(4): 50-63.

  63. Singh, Y., Shiv, V.S., Susheel, K.S., Sandeep, U., Rajeev, N., Anil, K.R., Tony M.K.N., Ram, K.S., Sushil, K.C. and Ashok, K.S. (2025). Climate smart land configurations and cropping systems diversification sustaining soil-water- carbon synergy and resource use efficiency. Resources,  Environment and Sustainability. 21: 100246.

  64. Smith, R., David, T., Matthew, T. and Nick, R. (2015). When does organic carbon induce aggregate stability in vertosols? Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 201: 92-100. 

  65. Sunitha, N.H., Naik, C. and Hanumanthappa, D. (2018). Role of farm women in Indian agriculture. International Journal of Plant Sciences. 13: 265-270. 

  66. Sushma and Sao, Y. (2018). Site specific nutrient management use in two soil type vertisol and inceptisol of Mungeli district of Chhattisgarh on grain and straw yield. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry. 7(6): 387-388.

  67. Venkatesh, M.S., Patil, S.L. and Revanappa, S.B. (2023). Impact of mulching and nutrient management under pulses based cropping systems on vertisols of southern transitional zone of Karnataka. Journal of Food Legumes. 36(4): 268-272.

  68. Venkateswarlu, B. and Prasad, J.V.N.S. (2012). Carrying capacity of Indian agriculture: Issues related to rainfed agriculture. Current Science. 102: 882-888.

  69. Verma, P.D., Parmanand and Tamrakar, S.K. (2017). Effect of broad bed furrow method for rainfed soybean cultivation at Balodabazar district of Chhattisgarh. International Journal of Agricultural Engineering. 10(2): 297-301.

  70. Vittal, K.P.R., Ramakrishna, Y.S. and Sharma, K.L. (2005). District- based promising technologies for rainfed chickpea- based production system in India. ICAR-CRIDA, Hyderabad.

  71. Wani, S.P., Pathak, P., Jangawad, L.S., Eswaran, H. and Singh, P. (2003). Improved management of Vertisols in the semiarid tropics for increased productivity and soil carbon sequestration. Soil Use and Management. 19: 217-222.

  72. Wanjari, R., Singh, M. and Ghosh, P. (2004). Sustainable yield index: An approach to evaluate the sustainability of long- term intensive cropping systems in India. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture. 24: 39-56.

  73. Wu, W. and Ma, B. (2015). Integrated nutrient management (INM) for sustaining crop productivity and reducing environmental impact: A review. Science of The Total Environment. 512. 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.12.10.1

  74. Xing, Y. and Wang, X. (2024). Impact of agricultural activities on climate change: A review of greenhouse gas emission patterns in field crop systems. Plants. 13(16): 2285. 
Published In
Legume Research
Article Metrics
Metrics Icon
0
Views
0
Citations
Reviewed By
Share Article
Download Article
In this Article
    Contact us
    Follow us

    Review Article

    Cropping Kharif Fallows to Enhance Rabi Chickpea Productivity and Cropping Intensity in Rainfed Deep Vertisols: A Comprehensive Review

    P
    P. Munirathnam1
    K
    K. Ashok Kumar2,*
    J
    J. Manjunath3
    S
    S. Neelima4
    B
    B.H. Chaithanya5
    K
    K. Sathish Babu6
    M
    M. Johnson7
    1Department of Agronomy, ANGRAU, Administrative Office, Lam, Guntur-522 034, Andhra Pradesh, India.
    2Department of Agronomy, ANGRAU-Regional Agricultural Research Station, Nandyal-518 502, Andhra Pradesh, India.
    3Department of Entomology, ANGRAU-Regional Agricultural Research Station, Nandyal-518 502, Andhra Pradesh, India.
    4Department of Plant Breeding, ANGRAU-Regional Agricultural Research Station, Nandyal-518 502, Andhra Pradesh, India.
    5Department of Plant Pathology, ANGRAU-Regional Agricultural Research Station, Nandyal-518 502, Andhra Pradesh, India.
    6Department of Agronomy, ANGRAU-Agricultural College, Mahanandi, Nandyal-518 502, Andhra Pradesh, India.
    7Department of Plant Pathology, ADR, Scarce Rainfall Zone, ANGRAU-Regional Agricultural Research Station, Nandyal-518 502, Andhra Pradesh, India.

    • Submitted07-11-2025|

    • Accepted28-01-2026|

    • First Online 16-02-2026|

    • doi 10.18805/LR-5603

    ABSTRACT

    Rainfed deep Vertisols in semi-arid regions of India are traditionally left fallow during the kharif season to conserve soil moisture for rabi crops, particularly chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.). While this practice ensures residual moisture availability, it significantly limits cropping intensity, land productivity and resource use efficiency. Recent agronomic research has demonstrated the feasibility of cropping kharif fallows with short-duration, low-water-demand crops such as green gram, foxtail millet, sesame and cowpea. These crops can be harvested before the onset of rabi season, leaving sufficient residual moisture for chickpea establishment. Moreover, strategic interventions in land configuration, nutrient management and integrated pest control have enabled successful kharif cropping in Vertisols, mitigating risks associated with waterlogging and poor soil aeration. This review synthesizes multidisciplinary research on kharif crop-chickpea systems, comparing them with conventional fallow-chickpea rotations across agronomic, economic and ecological metrics. Evidence from long-term trials and farmer participatory research reveals that intensified systems improve chickpea equivalent yields, enhance soil carbon sequestration, suppress pest and disease cycles and contribute to climate resilience. Integrated nutrient and residue management further supports soil health and microbial activity, while diversified cropping systems offer better profitability and livelihood security. Across Vertisol regions, inclusion of kharif crops increased chickpea equivalent yield by 22-33% and soil organic carbon by 18-21% compared with traditional fallow-chickpea system, while also improving yield stability and farm profitability. The paper also identifies key research gaps and policy interventions needed to scale sustainable kharif cropping in Vertisol landscapes. By integrating agronomic innovations with ecological and socioeconomic perspectives, this review provides a comprehensive framework for advancing chickpea-based systems and promoting sustainable intensification in rainfed agriculture.

    INTRODUCTION

    Rainfed agriculture in India occupies nearly 60% of the net sown area and supports the livelihoods of millions of smallholder farmers (Venkateswarlu and Prasad, 2012). Within this domain, deep Vertisols-characterized by high clay content, slow permeability and pronounced shrink-swell behavior-are a dominant soil group in semi-arid regions such as central and southern India. These soils are agriculturally significant but pose unique challenges during the monsoon season due to water logging, poor aeration and crust formation. Consequently, the conventional practice in Vertisol regions has been to leave the land fallow during the kharif season, conserving soil moisture for rabi crops, particularly chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.), which is highly sensitive to terminal drought and soil moisture deficits (Vittal et al., 2005; Sharma, 2001).
           
    The fallow-rabi chickpea system, while agronomically conservative, restricts cropping intensity and underutilizes the kharif rainfall. This practice results in low land use efficiency, reduced annual productivity and missed opportunities for ecological benefits such as nutrient cycling and carbon sequestration. With increasing pressure on land resources, climate variability and the need for sustainable intensification, researchers began to explore the feasibility of cropping kharif fallows with short-duration, low-water-demand crops. These include green gram (Vigna radiata), foxtail millet (Setaria italica), sesame (Sesamum indicum) and cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), which can be harvested before the onset of rabi season, leaving sufficient residual moisture for chickpea establishment (Munirathnam and Kumar, 2021; Prabhakar et al., 2022). The transition from fallow to kharif cropping in Vertisols is supported by agronomic innovations such as broad-bed and furrow (BBF) land configuration, improved drainage systems and integrated nutrient and pest management. These systems not only enhance land use efficiency but also contribute to soil health, carbon sequestration and ecological resilience (Salahin et al., 2021; Kumari et al., 2024). Moreover, the inclusion of legumes and cover crops during kharif improves biological nitrogen fixation, microbial activity and soil structure-factors critical for sustaining chickpea productivity. Studies have shown that kharif crop-chickpea systems outperform traditional fallow-chickpea rotations across multiple metrics, including chickpea equivalent yield, sustainability yield index (SYI), net returns and soil organic carbon levels (Wani, 2003; Ghosh et al., 2014; Kumar et al., 2023).
           
    In addition to agronomic benefits, kharif cropping offers ecological and socio-economic advantages. Diversified cropping systems suppress pest and disease cycles that often intensify in monoculture fallow-rabi systems. Crop residues from kharif legumes and cereals enhance soil organic matter and improve water retention. Economically, farmers benefit from an additional harvest, reduced input costs per unit yield and improved resilience to climate shocks. Region-specific studies, such as those conducted in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, have demonstrated that kharif cropping does not compromise chickpea yields and, in many cases, enhances overall system productivity (Raghuwanshi et al., 2024).
           
    Despite these promising outcomes, adoption of kharif cropping in Vertisols remains limited due to perceived risks, lack of access to suitable crop varieties, inadequate drainage infrastructure and limited extension support. Addressing these barriers requires a combination of research, policy interventions and farmer engagement. Breeding efforts must focus on short-duration, waterlogging-tolerant kharif crops and chickpea varieties adapted to post-kharif conditions. Agronomic packages should be tailored to local soil and climate conditions and institutional support must facilitate access to inputs, credit and markets.
           
    This review synthesizes multidisciplinary research on cropping kharif fallows to enhance rabi chickpea productivity and system sustainability. A systematic literature survey was conducted covering peer-reviewed journal articles, long-term experiments, ICAR and ICRISAT research reports and cluster front line demonstrations published primarily between 2000 and 2025. Studies were included if they addressed rainfed Vertisols, evaluated kharif-chickpea sequences and reported agronomic, ecological or socio-economic outcomes.
           
    By integrating agronomic, ecological and policy perspectives, the review aims to provide a comprehensive framework for researchers, extension professionals and policymakers to reimagine kharif cropping in Vertisols-not as a risk, but as a strategic opportunity for climate-resilient agriculture. A schematic map showing the distribution of Vertisols in India is provided in Fig 1 (Mandal et al., 2013).

    Fig 1: Schematic map showing Vertisols distribution in India under assured and unassured rainfall zones.


           
    To synthesize the interactions, among kharif cropping, soil-water processes in Vertisols, rabi chickpea performance and broader sustainability outcomes, a conceptual framework is presented (Fig 2). The framework illustrates how short-duration kharif crops, supported by appropriate land configuration and nutrient management can mitigate Vertisol constraints, enhance residual soil moisture and soil health and ultimately improve productivity and resilience of chickpea-based rainfed systems.

    Fig 2: Conceptual framework illustrating kharif crop introduction in deep Vertisols and its interactions with soil-water processes, rabi chickpea performance and sustainability pathways under rainfed conditions.


     
    Cropping systems and dominant crops
     
    Cropping systems in deep Vertisols of semi-arid India have traditionally revolved around a fallow–rabi chickpea rotation, primarily to conserve soil moisture and avoid waterlogging during the monsoon season. However, this practice significantly limits cropping intensity and land productivity. A long-term (15 year) experiment at ICRISAT demonstrated that cropping during the rainy season is technically feasible and the grain productivity of double cropped sorghum + chickpea and black gram + sorghum sequential systems were higher than their conventional counterparts with rainy season fallow, i.e. fallow + post-rainy sorghum and fallow + post-rainy chickpea (Rao et al., 2015). Recent research has demonstrated the feasibility and benefits of introducing short-duration kharif crops prior to chickpea, thereby enhancing system productivity, soil health and economic returns (Prabhakar et al., 2022; Munirathnam and Kumar, 2021). The selection of kharif crops suitable for Vertisols hinges on their ability to tolerate intermittent water logging, mature early and leave sufficient residual moisture for rabi chickpea. The most promising crops include green gram (Patil et al., 2022), foxtail millet (Munirathnam and Kumar, 2021; Jyotsna et al., 2023), maize (Venkatesh et al., 2023) and sesame (Shahana et al., 2022).
     
    Regional variations in cropping systems
     
    Cropping systems on Vertisols in India exhibit pronounced regional variation driven by differences in rainfall regime, soil moisture dynamics and market orientation across agro-climatic zones. In central India, particularly in Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra, soybean-chickpea and pigeon pea-chickpea sequences dominate rainfed Vertisol agriculture, reflecting both climatic suitability and strong market demand for pulses. In these regions, the broad-bed and furrow (BBF) land configuration has been widely adopted to alleviate seasonal waterlogging, improve surface drainage and enhance root aeration, resulting in improved crop establishment and yield stability under monsoon rainfall conditions (Prasad et al., 2023; Jadav et al., 2022). In the southern Vertisol zones of Karnataka and the erstwhile Andhra Pradesh region, cotton and pigeon pea-based systems are prevalent, often practiced as intercropping with millets or short-duration legumes to spread risk and optimize resource use. Here, conservation agriculture practices such as reduced tillage, residue retention and diversified cropping are increasingly promoted to mitigate climate variability, conserve soil moisture and sustain productivity under semi-arid conditions (Jat, 2012; Kassam et al., 2019). Eastern Vertisol pockets in Chhattisgarh and parts of Odisha are characterized by maize- and sorghum-based systems, traditionally constrained by excess moisture and suboptimal drainage during the kharif season. Recent research and development efforts emphasize diversification through the integration of pulses and oilseeds to improve system resilience, soil fertility and farm income, supported by improved land shaping and location-specific nutrient management strategies (ICAR-CRIDA, 2016; ICAR, 2020).
           
    Recent field experiments conducted at RARS, Nandyal and other regional stations have shown that kharif crop-chickpea systems outperform fallow-chickpea rotations across multiple agronomic and economic metrics. The inclusion of kharif crops improves chickpea equivalent yield (CEY), sustainability yield index (SYI) and soil organic carbon (SOC) levels (Table 1) (Munirathnam and Kumar, 2021).

    Table 1: Comparative performance of cropping systems in deep Vertisols.


           
    These systems enhance nutrient cycling, suppress weeds and pests and improve soil structure through root biomass and residue incorporation. Notably, green gram-chickpea systems recorded the highest production use efficiency and SYI, attributed to biological nitrogen fixation and improved soil carbon status (Prabhakar et al., 2022).
           
    Relative to the traditional fallow-chickpea system, kharif-based cropping systems resulted in a 22-33% increase in chickpea equivalent yield, with the highest improvement observed under green gram-chickpea followed by cowpea-chickpea and foxtail millet-chickpea systems (Table 1).
           
    Higher system productivity translated into substantially greater net returns, ranging from Rs.39,000 to 42,000/ha under kharif -based systems compared with Rs.28,000/ha under fallow-chickpea (Table 1).
     
    Scope for introducing preceding kharif crops
     
    The rationale for leaving land fallow in kharif is soil moisture conservation. However, several studies have shown that early-maturing crops (60-70 days) can utilize the early monsoon rainfall without adversely affecting rabi chickpea yields (Chaudhary et al., 2020). Short-duration pulses such as mungbean (Vigna radiata), urdbean (Vigna mungo) and cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) are well suited to rainfed kharif systems due to their low water requirement, early maturity and capacity for biological nitrogen fixation, which enhances soil fertility and benefits succeeding crops (Singh and Praharaj, 2011; Kermah et al., 2018). In addition, drought-tolerant cereals such as sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) and pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) have been widely evaluated for their adaptability to semi-arid rainfed environments and their role in crop diversification and system intensification (Bandyopadhyay et al., 2017).
     
    Soil and water management
     
    Land configuration plays a pivotal role in mitigating waterlogging and improving root zone aeration. Among the most effective techniques is the Broad-Bed and Furrow (BBF) system, which elevates planting beds and channels excess water into furrows (Khambalkar et al., 2014). Studies conducted in Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh have shown that BBF improves chickpea establishment following kharif crops by enhancing infiltration and reducing crust formation (Prabhakar et al., 2022). Other configurations include raised beds, which facilitate drainage and reduce compaction; Contour bunding, which conserves moisture and minimizes runoff; and Graded furrows, which direct water flow and prevent stagnation (Autkar et al., 2006; Verma et al., 2017).
           
    Techniques such as mulching with crop residues, cover cropping and ridge–furrow planting have proven effective in retaining soil moisture and improving infiltration rates. Mulching reduces evaporation and moderates soil temperature. Cover crops like cowpea and green gram enhance soil structure and microbial activity. Ridge-furrow systems optimize water distribution and root zone moisture.
           
    Effective drainage is essential for kharif cropping in Vertisols. Poorly drained soils lead to anaerobic conditions, root diseases and delayed sowing. Strategies include: Surface drainage channels to remove excess water. Early sowing before peak monsoon to avoid saturation. Subsurface drainage (where feasible) to improve aeration and reduce waterlogging risk.
           
    Kharif     cropping improves several physical properties of Vertisols like aggregate stability, increases due to root biomass and residue incorporation; Bulk density, which decreases, enhancing root penetration; and Porosity and infiltration improve, facilitating moisture retention for rabi crops.
     
    Nutrient management
     
    Kharif  legumes such as green gram/ cowpea/soybean contribute to biological nitrogen fixation, enriching the soil with available nitrogen for the succeeding chickpea crop. (Patil et al., 2022; Shah et al., 2025). Cereals like foxtail millet and oilseeds like sesame mobilize phosphorus and micronutrients from deeper soil layers, improving nutrient availability in the rhizosphere. The residual effects of these crops are particularly beneficial in Vertisols, where nutrient stratification and poor mobility can limit uptake. Field studies in Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra have shown that cropping kharif fallows with green gram or foxtail millet leads to higher chickpea yields and improved nutrient use efficiency compared to fallow-chickpea systems (Prabhakar et al., 2022; Munirathnam and Kumar, 2021). Sidhu et al., (2003) reported that mung bean residue incorporation increased subsequent maize crop yield by 39%.
           
    Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) combines organic amendments, biofertilizers and inorganic fertilizers to optimize nutrient availability and sustain soil health. In Vertisols, INM has proven effective in maintaining productivity under intensive cropping systems (Wu and Ma, 2015). Gabhane et al., (2022) reported that application of 50% recommended nitrogen dose (RDN) through farmyard manure (FYM) or gliricidia, combined with 50% RDN and full doses of phosphorus and potassium through inorganic sources, significantly improved crop yields and soil fertility under cotton + green gram intercropping in Vertisols. Similar approaches can be adapted for kharif–chickpea systems to balance nutrient inputs and reduce dependency on chemical fertilizers. Key INM components include Organic amendments like FYM, compost and green manures improve soil structure, water retention and microbial activity; Biofertilizers such as Rhizobium, phosphate-solubilizing bacteria (PSB) and mycorrhizae enhance nutrient uptake and root development and Balanced fertilization, based on soil testing, tailored nutrient doses prevent deficiencies and optimize crop response.
           
    Residue incorporation from kharif crops contributes to soil organic carbon, improves cation exchange capacity and supports microbial biomass (Ladha et al., 2022). Legume residues, in particular, decompose rapidly (Jibat et al., 2014) and release nutrients synchronously with chickpea demand. Residue retention also enhances soil aggregation and reduces erosion, which is critical in Vertisols prone to surface sealing and runoff (Page et al., 2019). Conservation tillage combined with residue management has shown positive effects on nutrient availability (Jayaraman et al., 2021) and chickpea performance (Karuna et al., 2024).
           
    Micronutrient deficiencies-especially of zinc (Zn), boron (B) and sulfur (S)-are increasingly reported in intensively cultivated Vertisols (Palmer et al., 2023). Site-specific nutrient management (SSNM) trials in Chhattisgarh identified nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur as the most limiting nutrients, followed by Zn and B (Sushma and Sao, 2018).
     
    Pest and disease dynamics
     
    Kharif cropping introduces plant diversity that interferes with pest life cycles and reduces host continuity (Han-ming et al., 2019). In fallow systems, soil-borne pathogens such as Fusarium oxysporum sp. ciceri (causing Fusarium wilt) and Rhizoctonia bataticola (causing dry root rot) tend to accumulate due to the absence of crop rotation, leading to severe yield losses, while collar rot (Sclerotium rolfsii) and wet root rot (Rhizoctonia solani) also thrive in monocropped or fallow-chickpea fields and foliar diseases such as Ascochyta blight (Ascochyta rabiei), Botrytis gray mold (Botrytis cinerea), anthracnose (Colletotrichum spp.) and Sclerotinia stem rot (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum) spread more rapidly in monoculture systems. Also, insect pests, particularly the pod borer (Helicoverpa armigera), are more destructive in fallow chickpea fields where natural predator populations are scarce and cutworms and bruchids also show higher prevalence in monocropped systems, while weeds in fallow land act as alternate hosts, sustaining pest populations and exacerbating the problem, making fallow chickpea highly vulnerable to biotic stress (Saravanan and Amanath, 2025). Whereas in kharif cropping-chickpea system reduces pest pressure by breaking insect life cycles, thereby lowering pod borer outbreaks. Pande et al., (2012) observed that chickpea grown after cereals or pulses experiences lower disease incidence compared to chickpea grown after fallow. In addition, Fusarium wilt incidence was significantly reduced in sorghum/maize-chickpea compared to fallow (Priyanka and Yogita, 2022). Furthermore, research studies indicated that rice-fallow chickpea systems in the Indo-Gangetic plains suffered from higher pest and disease pressure compared to rotational systems (Hedayetullah, 2023).
           
    The comparative analysis of cropping systems reveals that fallow chickpea has high pest and disease pressure, with key issues including fusarium wilt, root rots and pod borer outbreaks, while chickpea after foxtail millet, maize, or jowar shows low pest and disease pressure. In conclusion, fallow-chickpea systems are more vulnerable to pests and diseases due to pathogen buildup and uninterrupted pest cycles, while rotational cropping with foxtail millet, maize, jowar and pulses significantly reduces pest and disease incidence. Furthermore, integrated pest management strategies are essential to sustain chickpea productivity in diverse agro-ecological zones, with evidence from multiple studies confirming that non-fallow systems consistently outperform fallow systems in terms of pest and disease management, soil health and yield stability.
     
    Yield gaps and productivity trends
     
    Multiple studies across central and southern India have demonstrated that kharif crop-chickpea systems consistently outperform traditional fallow-chickpea rotations. Chickpea yields remain stable or improve when preceded by green gram, foxtail millet, or cowpea, provided appropriate land configuration and moisture conservation practices are followed (Munirathnam and Kumar, 2021). Cluster Frontline Demonstrations (CFLDs) conducted in Vertisol regions have shown that improved kharif management leads to higher chickpea equivalent yields (CEY) and better sustainability yield index (SYI). For instance, green gram-chickpea systems recorded CEY values of 2400-2600 kg/ha, compared to 1800 kg/ha in fallow-chickpea systems (Mohan et al., 2019). Yield gaps are defined as the difference between potential and actual yields under farmer-managed conditions. Similar trends were observed in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, where kharif cropping improved soil moisture and nutrient availability for chickpea.
           
    Long-term trials conducted by ICRISAT and CRIDA over 5-7 years have shown that kharif cropping enhances system resilience and stabilizes chickpea yields under variable rainfall conditions. These systems also improve soil health indicators such as organic carbon, microbial biomass and aggregate stability.
     
    Economic and efficiency gains
     
    Beyond yield, kharif cropping improves economic returns and input use efficiency. Studies show that net returns in kharif–chickpea systems are 30-50% higher than in fallow-chickpea systems, due to additional kharif harvest and improved chickpea performance (Saila and Kumar, 2009; Meena et al., 2021). Land use efficiency (LUE) also improves, as the same land supports two crops per year instead of one (Jat et al., 2011; Dhaka et al., 2025a). This intensification contributes to better livelihood outcomes and reduces per-unit production costs.
     
    Carbon sequestration and sustainability
     
    Vertisols are known for their high clay content and capacity to stabilize organic carbon (Smith et al., 2015; Jadhav et al., 2024), but their SOC levels decline rapidly under continuous monoculture and residue removal (Jha et al., 2020). Inclusion of kharif crops-especially legumes like green gram and cowpea-contributes to both labile and stable carbon pools through root biomass and leaf litter (Rai et al., 2023; Singh and Singh, 2025). Studies from Akola and Bhopal have shown that conservation tillage combined with kharif cropping increases total carbon input by 30-40% over conventional fallow systems. A long-term study by Raghuwanshi et al., (2024) in central India revealed that kharif cropping under no-tillage conditions significantly improved SOC, aggregate stability and soil penetration resistance. Soybean-chickpea and maize-gram systems recorded higher carbon sequestration rates (Anupama et al., 2025) compared to fallow-chickpea rotations.
           
    Sustainability in cropping systems is commonly assessed using integrative indicators such as the Sustainability Yield Index (SYI) (Wanjari et al., 2004), which reflects yield stability over time; land use efficiency (LUE), which captures productivity per unit area and time (Marcello et al., 2022) and carbon footprint reduction, which indicates net mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions (Xing and Wang, 2024). Across these indicators, kharif-chickpea cropping systems consistently outperform the traditional fallow-chickpea system, demonstrating both higher productivity and greater system resilience (Salakinkop, 2024). Among the evaluated systems, green gram-chickpea recorded particularly high sustainability performance, with SYI values reaching 0.68 and LUE improvements of 35-40%. These gains are largely attributed to enhanced biomass inputs, improved soil cover and reduced tillage intensity during the kharif season, which collectively contribute to better resource-use efficiency and soil health (Prabhakar et al., 2022).
           
    Kharif     cropping enhances climate resilience in rainfed Vertisol systems by buffering rainfall variability through improved soil infiltration and water retention (Kamboj et al., 2025; Sawant et al., 2025), reducing erosion via continuous ground cover and root-mediated soil stabilization and enhancing on-farm biodiversity through crop diversification and microbial enrichment. Beyond these physical and biological functions, kharif-based systems support a range of ecosystem services, including improved nutrient cycling, enhanced pollinator habitat and suppression of pest and disease pressures (Desalegn and Abate, 2021; Mwila et al., 2021). The adoption of conservation agriculture practices-particularly residue retention and reduced tillage-further strengthens these benefits by improving soil structure, moderating soil temperature and increasing system resilience to climatic stress (Jayaraman et al., 2021). Collectively, these processes contribute to greater carbon sequestration and overall system sustainability in Vertisols, as reflected in higher soil organic carbon levels, reduced erosion risk and improved productivity over time (Singh et al., 2025) (Table 2).

    Table 2: Carbon sequestration and sustainability metrics in Vertisol cropping system.


     
    Policy and socioeconomic dimensions
     
    Access to quality inputs-such as seeds of short-duration kharif crops, biofertilizers and land configuration implements-is essential for system intensification. Government schemes like the National Food Security Mission (NFSM) and Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY) have supported pulses and oilseeds through seed minikits, demonstrations and training. However, these programmes often focus on rabi crops, with limited emphasis on kharif diversification. Credit access remains a barrier, especially for smallholders in Vertisol regions. Seasonal cash flow constraints and lack of collateral limit investment in kharif cropping. Strengthening institutional credit and promoting self-help groups (SHGs) and Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) can improve input adoption and reduce financial risk. Market access for kharif crops is uneven. While chickpea benefits from Minimum Support Price (MSP) and procurement mechanisms, kharif millets, pulses and oilseeds often lack assured markets. This discourages farmers from investing in kharif cropping despite its agronomic benefits. Developing value chains for green gram, sesame and foxtail millet-including aggregation, processing and branding-can enhance profitability. FPOs play a critical role in linking producers to buyers, negotiating prices and reducing transaction costs. Digital platforms and e-NAM (National Agriculture Market) offer additional avenues for market integration (Chand et al., 2016; Singh et al., 2021; Chauhan and Rathore, 2025). Kharif cropping increases labor demand, particularly during land preparation, sowing and harvesting. This has implications for household labor allocation and gender roles. Studies in Karnataka and Maharashtra show that women contribute significantly to kharif operations, especially in weeding and harvesting, yet often lack decision-making power and access to training (Ekatpure, 2011; Sunitha et al., 2018).
           
    Knowledge gaps and risk perceptions hinder kharif cropping in Vertisols. Many farmers associate kharif cultivation with waterlogging, crop failure and reduced chickpea yields. Participatory extension approaches-such as Farmer Field Schools (FFS), on-farm trials and ICT-based advisories-can address these concerns and build confidence. ICRISAT’s watershed-based interventions have demonstrated that community engagement and localized training improve adoption of kharif cropping and conservation practices. Integrating agronomic recommendations with socioeconomic realities ensures relevance and scalability.
           
    Scaling kharif cropping in deep Vertisols requires a shift from rabi-centric support toward year-round system intensification. Policy incentives such as MSP, crop insurance and targeted input support can reduce risk and promote kharif diversification, while investments in drainage infrastructure and land configuration tools are essential to overcome waterlogging constraints. Strengthening Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) can improve access to inputs and markets and gender-sensitive extension approaches are crucial given women’s significant role in kharif operations (Birthal et al., 2015). Together, these measures can transform kharif cropping from a perceived risk into a viable pathway for sustainable intensification and livelihood enhancement. The adoption of kharif cropping in Vertisols is strongly shaped by socio-economic and institutional factors, which are summarized in Table 3.

    Table 3: Socio-economic factors influencing kharif cropping adoption in Vertisols.


     
    Future directions and research gaps
     
    Despite growing evidence supporting kharif cropping in deep Vertisols, several research and implementation gaps remain that limit widespread adoption and long-term sustainability. Addressing these gaps requires a multi-disciplinary approach that integrates agronomy, soil science, climate resilience, socio-economics and policy innovation. One of the most critical needs is the development of short-duration, waterlogging-tolerant kharif crops that can mature before rabi sowing while withstanding early monsoon stress. For chickpea, breeding efforts must focus on varieties adapted to post-kharif conditions, with improved root architecture, drought tolerance and disease resistance. ICRISAT’s work on Vertisols has emphasized the importance of matching genotype to micro-environment, especially in double cropping systems. Participatory varietal selection (PVS) and decentralized trials can accelerate adoption of region-specific cultivars.
           
    Although kharif cropping has been shown to improve soil organic carbon (SOC) in Vertisols, its long-term impacts on carbon sequestration, nutrient cycling and soil microbial dynamics remain insufficiently quantified. Addressing this gap requires the development of standardized soil health indicators applicable across Vertisol regions, along with robust carbon budgeting models that compare different kharif-rabi cropping sequences. In addition, advanced microbial profiling is needed to better understand the biological regulation of pests and diseases and their interactions with soil carbon dynamics. These assessments should be embedded within long-term conservation agriculture trials to evaluate trade-offs among tillage intensity, residue retention and carbon stabilization. Concurrently, climate variability-particularly erratic monsoon onset, intra-seasonal dry spells and extreme rainfall events-poses significant risks to kharif cropping, underscoring the need for integrated climate risk assessment and adaptive agronomic strategies to enhance system resilience.
           
    Future research should focus on agro-climatic zoning to refine kharif crop suitability in Vertisols and on developing decision support tools for optimizing sowing windows, crop choice and contingency planning under delayed monsoon or excess rainfall conditions. Recent ICAR agro-advisories for farmers (2025) highlight the importance of localized, real-time, weather-based agro-advisory systems to support adaptive decision-making in rainfed systems. Equally critical is a deeper assessment of the economic viability of kharif-chickpea systems, including cost–benefit analysis of land configuration and drainage practices, risk-return modeling under rainfall and price variability and behavioral studies on farmer perceptions and risk aversion. Evidence from Cluster Frontline Demonstrations suggests that adoption is strongly influenced by perceived profitability and extension support, underscoring the need for similar evaluations in Vertisol regions. Scaling kharif cropping will therefore require institutional innovations beyond demonstrations, including landscape-level drainage planning, FPO-led seed systems, digital extension platforms and adaptation of watershed-based approaches for kharif-chickpea systems with strong policy and community support.

    CONCLUSION

    Cropping kharif fallows in deep Vertisols represents a transformative opportunity for enhancing rabi chickpea productivity, improving land use efficiency and advancing sustainable intensification in rainfed agriculture. Traditionally fallowed to conserve moisture, Vertisols have long been underutilized during the monsoon season due to concerns over waterlogging and operational constraints. However, recent agronomic innovations-such as broad-bed furrow land configuration, short-duration kharif crops, integrated nutrient and pest management and conservation agriculture-have demonstrated that kharif cropping is not only feasible but highly beneficial.
           
    Evidence from long-term trials, participatory research and field demonstrations confirms that kharif crop-chickpea systems outperform conventional fallow-chickpea rotations across agronomic, economic and ecological metrics. These systems enhance soil organic carbon, suppress pest and disease cycles, improve nutrient cycling and contribute to climate resilience. Moreover, they offer higher chickpea equivalent yields, better sustainability yield indices and increased profitability for smallholder farmers.
           
    Despite these advantages, adoption remains constrained by limited access to inputs, inadequate drainage infrastructure, market uncertainties and risk perceptions. Addressing these challenges requires targeted breeding programs, robust soil health monitoring, climate-adaptive agronomy and inclusive policy frameworks. Institutional innovations-such as FPO-led seed systems, digital extension platforms and watershed-based scaling models-can accelerate uptake and ensure equitable benefits.
           
    This review underscores the need to reframe kharif cropping in Vertisols not as a risk, but as a strategic pathway toward resilient, productive and sustainable chickpea-based systems. With coordinated research, policy support and farmer engagement, kharif cropping can become a potential cornerstone of climate-smart agriculture in India’s rainfed heartlands.

    CONFLICT OF INTEREST

    The authors here by declare that there are no conflicts of interest.

    REFERENCES


    1. Anupama, G.V., Abhishek, D., Thomas, F., Mequanint, M., Girish, C., Cuba, P., Kumar, A., Ajay, S. and Roja, M. (2025). Integrating carbon sequestration and yield optimization in Indian cropping systems. Sustainable Futures. 10: 101293.

    2. Autkar, K.S., Gawande, R.L., Vyas, J.S. and Ghodpage, R.M. (2006). Effect of land configuration on yield and water use efficiency of soybean in Vertisols of Vidarbha (M.S.). Annals of Plant Physiology. 20: 158-159.

    3. Bandyopadhyay, T., Muthamilarasan, M. and Prasad, M. (2017). Millets for next generation climate-smart agriculture. Frontiers in Plant Science. 8: 1266. 

    4. Birthal, P., Roy, D. and Negi, D. (2015). Assessing the impact of crop diversification on farm poverty in India. World Development. 72: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2015.02.015.

    5. Chand, R. (2016). E-platform for National Agricultural market. Economic and Political Weekly. 47(52): 53-63.

    6. Chaudhary, R., Subhaprada, D., Koushik, S. and Gulati, J.M.N. (2020). Pulses in rice-fallow: A way towards achieving nutritional security: A review. Agricultural Reviews. 41(3): 264-271. doi: 10.18805/ag.R-2013.

    7. Chauhan, S. and Rathore, S. (2025). Implementation, impact and challenges of eNAM in agricultural markets- A systematic literature review (SLR). International Journal of Scientific Research in Engineering and Management. 9: 1-33. 

    8. Desalegn, H. and Abate, M. (2021). The adoption impact of wheat- chickpea double cropping on yield and farm income of smallholder farmers in central highlands of Ethiopia: The case of Becho district. Heliyon. 7(6): e07203.

    9. Dhaka, A.K., Singh, B., Kamal, Jat, R.D., Bishnoi, K.D., Kumar, A. (2025). Relative economic profitability of millet based crop rotations with chickpea in Hisar district of Haryana. Legume Research. 48(9): 1585-1593. doi: 10.18805/LR-5358.

    10. Dhaka, A.K., Jat, R.D., Singh, B., Dhaka, P., Kumar, S. and Kumar, S. (2025a). Relative yield, competition, land use and economic performance of chickpea-based intercropping systems. Legume Research. 48(10): 1721-1728. doi: 10.18805/LR-5141.

    11. Ekatpure, M.S., Kale, T.M., Bodake, D.H. and Antwal, N.P. (2011). Study of the participation of farm women in production of vermicompost, Maharashtra. Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute. 6(1): 14-16.

    12. Gabhane, V.V., Ghare, A. and Ramteke, P. (2022). Periodic changes in carbon and nitrogen in Vertisols under organic, inorganic and integrated nutrient management. Emergent Life Sciences Research. 8: 64-71.

    13. Ghosh, P.K., Kumar, N., Venkatesh, M.S., Hazra, K. and Nadarajan, N. (2014). Resource Conservation Technology in Pulses. ISBN: 978-81-7233-885-5.

    14. Han-ming, H.E., Li-na, L.I.U., Shahzad, M., Nawaz, H.B., Yi, W., Jing, Y. and Cheng-yun, L.I. (2019). Crop diversity and pest management in sustainable agriculture. Journal of Integrative Agriculture. 18(9): 1945-1952.

    15. Hedayetullah, M. (2023). Yield advantages of new technologies of chickpea in rice-fallow of indo-gangetic plains zone of West Bengal. Irish Interdisciplinary Journal of Science and Research. 7(3): 17-21.

    16. ICAR. (2020). Cropping Systems and Resource Management in Rainfed Areas of India. Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi.

    17. ICAR-CRIDA. (2016). District-level Contingency Plans for Climate Resilient Agriculture. Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad.

    18. Jadav, M.L., Raidas, D.K., Kumawat, N., Girothia, O.P., Bhagat, D.V. and Choudhary, S.K. (2022). Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L.) growth, yield and monetary influence by drip irrigation and mulch in Vertisols of Madhya Pradesh. Legume Research. 45(7): 853-859. doi: 10.18805/LR- 4701.

    19. Jadhav, K.P., Nayan, A., Tapan, J.P., Debasis, G., Ruma, D., Mahesh, C.M., Manoj, S., Rajeev, R. and Pooja, T. (2024). Role of clay-humus complexes in soil organic carbon stabilization across paddy soils in diverse Indian soil orders. International Journal of Plant and Soil Science. 36(11): 527-544.

    20. Jat, H.S., Meena, L.R., Mann, J.S., Roop, C., Subhash, C. and Sharma, S. (2011). Relative efficiency of different cropping sequences in a farmers participatory research programme in semi-arid agro-ecosystem of Rajasthan. Indian Journal of Agronomy. 56(4): 321-327.

    21. Jat, R.A., Wani, S.P. and Sahrawat, K.L. (2012). Chapter Four- Conservation Agriculture in the Semi-Arid Tropics: Prospects and Problems, [Editor(s): Donald L. Sparks], Advances in Agronomy, Academic Press. 17: 191-273.

    22. Jayaraman, S., Dang, Y.P., Naorem, A., Page, K.L. and Dalal, R.C. (2021). Conservation agriculture as a system to enhance ecosystem services. Agriculture. 11(8): 718. 

    23. Jayaraman, S., Sinha, N., Mohanty, M., Hati, K., Chaudhary, R., Shukla, A., Shirale, A., Sathyaseelan, N., Naorem, A., Rasmi, I., Biswas, A., Patra, A. Srinivasrao, Ch. and Dalal, R. (2021). Conservation tillage, residue management and crop rotation effects on soil major and micro-nutrients in semi-arid Vertisols of India. Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition. 21: 523-535.

    24. Jha, P., Hati, K.M., Dalal, R.C., Dang, Y.P., Kopittke, P.M. and Neal, W.M. (2020). Soil carbon and nitrogen dynamics in a Vertisol following 50/ years of no-tillage, crop stubble retention and nitrogen fertilization. Geoderma. 358: 113996.

    25. Jibat, G., Wolde-meskel, E. and Bakken, L. (2014). Unexpected high decomposition of legume residues in dry season soils from tropical coffee plantations and crop lands. Agronomy for Sustainable Development. 34. 10.1007/ s13593-013-0172-7.

    26. Jyotsna, K.M., Nayak, B.S., Priya, B.T., Narasimhulu, T. and Venkateswarlu, N.C. (2023). Evaluation of short duration crops prior to bengal gram. Metszet Journal. 8(11): 2061-2710.

    27. Kamboj, E., Dhaka, K. A., Kumar, S., Singh, B., Hooda, S.V. and Kamal. (2025). Growth and yield performance of chickpea (Cicer arietinum) as influenced by irrigation levels and genotypes: A review. Agricultural Reviews. 46(4): 663- 670. doi: 10.18805/ag.R-2693.

    28. Karuna, R., Gabhane, V.V., Monika S.B., Ankita, D., Patode, R.S., Ganvir, M.M. and Sonune, B.A. (2024). Impact of conservation tillage on soil fertility, productivity and nutrient uptake by chickpea in soybean-chickpea sequence on Vertisols.  International Journal of Plant and Soil Science. 36(9): 423-429.

    29. Kassam, A., Friedrich, T., Derpsch, R. and Kienzle, J. (2019). Global spread of conservation agriculture. International Journal of Environmental Studies. 76(1): 29-51.

    30. Kermah, M., Franke, A.C., Adjei-Nsiah, S., Ahiabor, B.D.K., Abaidoo, R.C. and Giller, K.E. (2018). N2-fixation and N contribution by grain legumes under different soil fertility status and cropping systems in the Guinea Savanna of Northern Ghana. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment. 261: 201-210.

    31. Khambalkar, V.P., Waghmare, N.N., Gajakos, A.V., Karale, D.S. and Kankal, U.S. (2014). Performance of broad bed- furrow planter in winter season of dryland crops. International Agricultural Engineering Journal. 23: 14-22.

    32. Kumar, S., Gopinath, K.A., Sheoran, S., Meena, R.S., Srinivasarao, C., Bedwal, S., Jangir, C.K., Mrunalini, K., Jat, R. and Praharaj, C.S. (2023). Pulse-based cropping systems for soil health restoration, resources conservation and nutritional and environmental security in rainfed agroecosystems. Frontiers in Microbiology. 3(13): 1041124. 

    33. Kumari, V.V., Balloi, S., Kumar, M., Ramana, D., Prabhakar, M., Osman, M., Indoria, A., Manjunath, M., Maruthi,V., Chary, G.R., Chandran, M.S., Gopinath, K., Venkatesh, G., Rao, M., Singh,V. and Timsina, J. (2024). Diversified cropping systems for reducing soil erosion and nutrient loss and for increasing crop productivity and profitability in rainfed environments.  Agricultural Systems. 217: 103919.

    34. Ladha, J.K., Mark, B., Peoples, P., Reddy, M., Biswas, J.C., Alan, B., Jat, M.L. and Timothy, J.K. (2022). Biological nitrogen fixation and prospects for ecological intensification in cereal-based cropping systems. Field Crops Research. 283: 108541.

    35. Mandal, K.G., Hati, K., Mishra, A.K., Bandyopadhyay, K.K. and Tripathi, A. (2013). Land surface modification and crop diversification for enhancing productivity of a Vertisol. International Journal of Plant Production. 7: 455-472.

    36. Marcello, S., Michele, M., Sergio, F., Pietro, F., Daniele, E., Pierpaolo, T., Martino, P. and Thomas, K. (2022). Land use efficiency of functional urban areas: Global pattern and evolution of development trajectories. Habitat International. 123: 102543.

    37. Meena, S.L., Bana, R.S., Sepat, S. and Dass, A. (2021). System productivity and economics as influenced by cropping system and nutrient management. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 91(10): 1470-1475.

    38. Mohan, M.M., Devi, S.R. and Veeraiah, A. (2019). Doubling farmers income through foxtail-millet chickpea cropping sequence under rainfed vertisols of Rayalaseema region of Andhra Pradesh. International Journal of Agriculture Sciences. 11(19): 9122-9124.

    39. Munirathnam, P. and Kumar, K.A. (2021). Inclusion effect of foxtail millet in fallow-chickpea production system: An approach to improve land productivity in Vertisols under variable water regimes. Agricultural Reviews. 43(4): 525-528. doi: 10.18805/ag.R-2150.

    40. Mwila, M., Mhlanga, B. and Thierfelder, C. (2021). Intensifying cropping systems through doubled-up legumes in Eastern Zambia. Scientific Reports. 11: 8101. 

    41. Page, K.L., Yash, P., Dang, R.C., Dalal, S.R., Greg, T., Weijin, W., John, P. and Thompson. (2019). Changes in soil water storage with no-tillage and crop residue retention on a Vertisol: Impact on productivity and profitability over a 50 year period. Soil and Tillage Research. 194: 104319.

    42. Palmer, B., Christopher, G., Gunasekhar, N. and Nilantha, H. (2023). Changes in micronutrient concentrations under minimum tillage and cotton-based crop rotations in irrigated Vertisols. Soil and Tillage Research. 228: 105626.

    43. Pande, S., Sharma, M., Ghosh, R., Rameshwar, T. and Reddy, D.R. (2012). Chickpea Diseases and Insect-Pest Management.  ICRISAT Publications.

    44. Patil, R.H., Kumbar, P. and Dhage, S.S. (2022). Greengram based cropping sequence for sustainability under changing climate in semi-arid part of Karnataka, India. Legume Research. 45(7): 893-897. doi: 10.18805/LR-4457.

    45. Patil, G.A., Halepyati A.S. and Chittapur, B.M. (2022). Energy use and economic analysis for achieving target yield through site specific nutrient management in soybean (Glycine max L.)-chickpea cropping system (Cicer arietinum L.). Legume Research. 45(7): 844-852. doi: 10.18805/LR-4371.

    46. Prabhakar, K., Sumathi, V., Krishna, T., Sudhakar, P. and Basha, S. (2022). Promising chickpea based cropping systems for Vertisols of Andhra Pradesh. Indian Journal of Agricultural Research. 59(1): 56-61. doi: 10.18805/IJARe.A-5898.

    47. Prasad, J.K., Swain, D.K. and Wani, S.P. (2023). Developing climate change agro-adaptation strategies through field experiments and simulation analyses for sustainable sorghum production in semi-arid tropics of India. Agricultural Water Management. 286: 108399.

    48. Priyanka, K.M. and Yogita, N.A. (2022). Diseases of chickpea and their management. Just Agriculture Newsletter. 3(2): 1-3.

    49. Raghuwanshi, S., Chaudhary, R.S., Sinha, N.K. and Trivedi, S.K. (2024). Effect of conservation agriculture on soil organic carbon and yield of cropping systems in Vertisols of central India. Emergent Life Sciences Research. 10(1): 129-139.

    50. Rai, A.K., Basak, N., Dixit, A.K., Rai, S.K., Das, S.K., Singh, J.B., Kumar, S., Kumar T.K., Chandra, P., Sundha, P. and Bedwal, S. (2023). Changes in soil microbial biomass and organic C pools improve the sustainability of perennial grass and legume system under organic nutrient management.  Frontiers in Microbiology. 14: 1173986. 

    51. Rao, V.N., Meinke, H., Craufurd, P.Q., Parsons, D., Kropff, M.J., Anten, P.R.N., Wani, S.P. and Rego, T.J. (2015). Strategic double cropping on Vertisols: A viable rainfed cropping option in the Indian SAT to increase productivity and reduce risk. European Journal of Agronomy. 62: 26-37.

    52. Saila, S.P.S. and Kumar, K.A. (2009). Effect of supplemental irrigation on yield of rabi crops in soybean-sunflower and sunflower- chickpea cropping systems. Journal of Oilseeds Research.  26: 350-352.

    53. Salahin, N., Alam, M.K., Ahmed, S., Jahiruddin, M., Gaber, A., Alsanie, W.F., Hossain, R and Bell, W. (2021). Carbon and nitrogen mineralization in dark grey calcareous flood plain soil is influenced by tillage practices and residue retention. Plants. 10(8): 1650.

    54. Salakinkop, S.R., Talekar, S.C., Patil, C.R., Patil, S.B., Jat, S.L., Iliger, K.S., Manjulatha, G., Harlapur, S.I. and Kachapur, R.M. (2024). Sustainable intensification of climate-resilient maize-chickpea system in semi-arid tropics through assessing factor productivity. Scientific Reports. 14(1): 3958.

    55. Saravanan, S. and Amanath, S. (2025). Pests and diseases in chickpea and integrated pest management (IPM). Agri Magazine. 2(5): 335-337.

    56. Sawant, C., Singh, K., Gupta, A. Meena, B., Fagodiya, R., Singh, A. and Vishwakarma, A., Khadatkar, A., Magar, A. and Chaudhary, V.P. (2025). Conservation agricultural practices enhance food-water-economics nexus and mitigate greenhouse gas emissions in maize (Zea mays L.)- chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) cropping system in central high lands of India. International Journal of Plant Production.  20: 10.1007/s42106-025-00393-9.

    57. Shah, S.N., Chaudhari, V.D., Shroff, J.C., Patel, V.J. and Patel A.P. (2025). Nutrient management through organic sources in chickpea. Legume Research. 48(9): 1558-1561. doi: 10.18805/LR-5165.

    58. Shahana, F., Goverdhan, M., Sridevi, S. and Joseph, B. (2022). Identification of economically viable cropping systems for Vertisols of Northern Telangana, India: A recent study. Research Developments in Science and Technology.  4: 142-150.

    59. Sharma, R.A. (2001). Conservation of natural resources and their efficient utilization for enhanced sustainable productivity and black soil regions of central India-A review: Agricultural Reviews. 22(3and4): 183-193.

    60. Sidhu, A.S., Sekhon, N.K., Thind, S.S. and Hira, G.S. (2003). Residue management for sustainable crop production in summer moong-maize-wheat sequence. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture. 22(2): 43-54.

    61. Singh, D., Patil, C. and Meena, S. (2021). Impact of online agriculture marketing policy-e-NAM (Electronic national agriculture market) on prices and arrivals of agricultural commodities in Punjab, India. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences. 10: 10-12.

    62. Singh, K. and Praharaj, C. (2011). Nutrient management strategies for pulse-based production systems in rainfed regions of India. Indian Journal of Fertilizers. 7(4): 50-63.

    63. Singh, Y., Shiv, V.S., Susheel, K.S., Sandeep, U., Rajeev, N., Anil, K.R., Tony M.K.N., Ram, K.S., Sushil, K.C. and Ashok, K.S. (2025). Climate smart land configurations and cropping systems diversification sustaining soil-water- carbon synergy and resource use efficiency. Resources,  Environment and Sustainability. 21: 100246.

    64. Smith, R., David, T., Matthew, T. and Nick, R. (2015). When does organic carbon induce aggregate stability in vertosols? Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 201: 92-100. 

    65. Sunitha, N.H., Naik, C. and Hanumanthappa, D. (2018). Role of farm women in Indian agriculture. International Journal of Plant Sciences. 13: 265-270. 

    66. Sushma and Sao, Y. (2018). Site specific nutrient management use in two soil type vertisol and inceptisol of Mungeli district of Chhattisgarh on grain and straw yield. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry. 7(6): 387-388.

    67. Venkatesh, M.S., Patil, S.L. and Revanappa, S.B. (2023). Impact of mulching and nutrient management under pulses based cropping systems on vertisols of southern transitional zone of Karnataka. Journal of Food Legumes. 36(4): 268-272.

    68. Venkateswarlu, B. and Prasad, J.V.N.S. (2012). Carrying capacity of Indian agriculture: Issues related to rainfed agriculture. Current Science. 102: 882-888.

    69. Verma, P.D., Parmanand and Tamrakar, S.K. (2017). Effect of broad bed furrow method for rainfed soybean cultivation at Balodabazar district of Chhattisgarh. International Journal of Agricultural Engineering. 10(2): 297-301.

    70. Vittal, K.P.R., Ramakrishna, Y.S. and Sharma, K.L. (2005). District- based promising technologies for rainfed chickpea- based production system in India. ICAR-CRIDA, Hyderabad.

    71. Wani, S.P., Pathak, P., Jangawad, L.S., Eswaran, H. and Singh, P. (2003). Improved management of Vertisols in the semiarid tropics for increased productivity and soil carbon sequestration. Soil Use and Management. 19: 217-222.

    72. Wanjari, R., Singh, M. and Ghosh, P. (2004). Sustainable yield index: An approach to evaluate the sustainability of long- term intensive cropping systems in India. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture. 24: 39-56.

    73. Wu, W. and Ma, B. (2015). Integrated nutrient management (INM) for sustaining crop productivity and reducing environmental impact: A review. Science of The Total Environment. 512. 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.12.10.1

    74. Xing, Y. and Wang, X. (2024). Impact of agricultural activities on climate change: A review of greenhouse gas emission patterns in field crop systems. Plants. 13(16): 2285. 
    In this Article
      Contact us
      Follow us
      Published In
      Legume Research

      Editorial Board

      View all (0)