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Full Research Article

Performance of a Diversified Legume-based High-intensity Cropping Sequence on Productivity and Profitability

F
Faraaz Farooq1,*
0009-0000-3309-2464
N
Neetu Sharma1
0000-0002-9773-6262
V
Vikas Sharma2
0000-0002-9961-4795
B
Brinder Singh3
0009-0002-1036-2075
R
Rakesh Kumar1
0009-0005-2527-8185
J
Joy Samuel MeCarty1
0009-0000-6120-5446
H
Hritik Srivastava4
0009-0002-6048-0125
1Division of Agronomy, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Jammu, Jammu-180 009, Jammu and Kashmir, India.
2Regional Agricultural Research Station, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Technology and Sciences, Rajouri, Jammu-185 131, Jammu and Kashmir, India.
3Advance Centre for Rainfed Agriculture, Samba, Jammu-181 133, Jammu and Kashmir, India.
4Department of Agriculture, Integral Institute of Agricultural Sciences and Technology, Lucknow-226 016, Uttar Pradesh, India.

  • Submitted17-11-2025|

  • Accepted05-01-2026|

  • First Online 17-01-2026|

  • doi 10.18805/LR-5606

ABSTRACT

Background: Enhancing productivity while conserving soil and resources is a pre-requisite for achieving sustainable intensification of agro-ecosystems. Diversification by integrating legumes with millets for such high-intensity systems not only offers a potential of improving soil fertility by fixing nitrogen and residue addition but overall enhances proper balance in nutrient cycling, ensures efficient use of land enhancing year-round productivity under irrigated conditions.

Methods: Field experiment was conducted at Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Jammu under irrigated conditions to evaluate high intensity legume-millet-millet cropping sequences. The study consisted of twelve cropping sequences laid down in a randomized block design with three replications, covering a complete annual cycle from rabi to kharif. Legume crop (Pea) was grown as common rabi crop across all treatments, followed by three millets foxtail millet, proso millet and pearl millet in the summer season and four millets finger millet, barnyard millet, little millet and kodo millet during kharif.

Result: Productivity of pea remained statistically unaffected during both years. During the summer season, cropping sequences involving pearl millet recorded significantly higher yields followed by foxtail millet. While among the kharif crops, finger millet outperformed other millet crops in sequence in terms of productivity. Overall, cropping systems integrating foxtail or pearl millet during summer and finger millet during kharif achieved the significantly higher system productivity (14,533.92 and 14,582.74 kg ha-1 in the first and second year, respectively) and profitability in terms of benefit : cost ratio of 2.62 and 2.38. Hence, the inclusion of pea-foxtail/pearl millet-finger millet proved to be most productive and economical viable option for irrigated conditions.

INTRODUCTION

Continuous cultivation of conventional cereal-based systems such as rice-wheat and maize-wheat has long ensured India’s food security but has now become ecologically and economically unsustainable. These systems have led to declining productivity, soil degradation, nutrient imbalance, and heavy dependence on chemical fertilizers and water-intensive practices, resulting in reduced resource-use efficiency and environmental imbalance (Bo et al., 2025). To achieve long-term sustainability, a transition is needed from input-intensive monocropping to diversified, legume-based systems that enhance soil health and resource efficiency (Farooq et al., 2025; Sharma et al., 2025). Legume-based cropping systems improve soil fertility, productivity and ecological stability by fixing atmospheric nitrogen, adding organic matter and stimulating microbial activity, which enhances soil structure and nutrient cycling (Kamal et al., 2023; 2024). Among legumes, pea (Pisum sativum L.) is a short-duration rabi crop ideally suited for intensive irrigated systems. Apart from being rich in protein, vitamins and minerals, pea improves soil fertility and system productivity, making it a suitable component for diversified high-intensity cropping systems (Parmar and Thakur, 2017; Sandhya et al., 2022 and Thesiya et al., 2019). Millets, termed “nutri-cereals,” have re-emerged as climate-resilient, low-input and nutrient-dense crops suitable for both rainfed and irrigated conditions (Pawase et al., 2019). Species such as finger millet (Eleusine coracana), pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum), little millet (Panicum sumatrense) and foxtail millet (Setaria italica) tolerate drought and poor soils while offering high nutritional value with abundant dietary fibre, iron, zinc and essential amino acids (Goud et al., 2022; Dhaka et al., 2023; Kothapalli et al., 2024; Mukherjee et al., 2025).
       
Empirical evidence confirms the potential of legume-millet integration for improving productivity, profitability and soil health. Dhaka et al., (2025) reported significant gains in yield and economic returns from legume-millet systems compared to cereal monocropping. Similarly, Shilpa et al., (2025) found that a finger millet + green gram-cow pea sequence achieved the highest system productivity, while Kyuh et al., (2022) observed enhanced carbon sequestration and nitrogen cycling in such rotations.
       
However, most of these studies have primarily focused on season or location specific rotations, often under rainfed or semi-arid environments, with limited emphasis on year round, high intensity legume-millet systems under irrigated subtropical conditions. In particular empirical information on multi-millet sequences integrating legumes across rabi, summer and kharif seasons remains scarce. Strategic inclusion of pea during rabi followed by short-duration millets in summer and kharif seasons can enhance land-use efficiency, sustain soil fertility and ensure continuous ground cover. Therefore, the present study was undertaken with the following specific objectives:
1. To evaluate the performance of diversified legume-based high-intensity cropping systems under irrigated conditions of Jammu.
2. To identify the most productive, profitable and sustainable legume-millet sequence for year-round green cover and ecological balance.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The field experiment was conducted at Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Jammu during 2023-24 and 2024-25 under irrigated conditions (Fig 1). The experimental site experiences a subtropical climate with distinct rabi, kharif and zaid seasons. Total annual rainfall was 1487 mm in 2023-24 and 1751.5 mm in 2024-25, predominantly received during the monsoon period (July-September). Mean summer temperatures ranged from 38 to 40°C. The sandy loam soil (pH 7.72) contained 4.21 g kg-1 organic carbon and available N, P and K of 237.21, 15.86 and 160.21 kg ha-1, respectively. Twelve legume-based high-intensity cropping systems were evaluated, each comprising pea in rabi followed by millets in summer and kharif. The experiment was laid out in a Randomized Block Design (RBD) with three replications and 36 plots (5.4 m × 3.0 m each). Treatments included combinations of pea with foxtail, proso and pearl millet in summer and finger, barnyard, little and kodo millet in kharif. Fertilization was carried out as per the locally recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF). The RDF applied was 40:60:50 kg N:P2O5: K2O ha-1 for pea, 100:60:25 kg N:P2O5: K2O ha1 for pearl millet and 40:20:0 kg N: P2O5: K2O ha-1 for the other millets included in the experiment. Weed control involved pre-emergence application of pendimethalin (1.0 kg a.i. ha-1) followed by hand weeding at 30 DAS. Irrigation was applied at critical stages; proso millet received an extra irrigation, while kharif millets were rainfed. In pea, pod weight and green pod yield were recorded, while in millets, yield attributes and grain yields were measured. System productivity was expressed as pea equivalent yield (PEY) following Yadav et al., (2018) and total system productivity was the sum of rabi, summer and kharif PEY. Economic analysis was performed using prevailing prices of inputs and outputs. Prices of finger millet and pearl millet were considered as per the Minimum Support Price (MSP) notified for the respective years, while prices of vegetable pea and other millets were based on the auction prices recorded at SKUAST-Jammu during the corresponding cropping seasons (2023-24 and 2024-25). Input costs were calculated based on actual field expenditure. Soil samples (0-15 cm) were analyzed for pH (Jackson, 1973), organic carbon (Walkley and Black, 1934) and available N (Subbiah and Asija, 1956), P (Olsen et al., 1954) and K (Jackson, 1973) using standard methods. Data were analysed year-wise using analysis of variance (ANOVA) under a randomized block design (RBD) with IBM SPSS (v29.0) and treatment means were compared at p≤0.05.

Fig 1: Study area.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Effect of legume-based cropping sequence on productivity of pea crop
 
Table 1 shows that pod weight per plant and green pod yield of pea were statistically at par across diversified legume-based cropping sequences during both years. However, both parameters improved slightly in the second year, reflecting a cumulative positive effect. Treatment T3 (Pea-Foxtail millet-Little millet) and T8 (Pea-Proso millet-Kodo millet) recorded highest pod weight and pod yield during first and second year, respectively. Overall, all sequences were statistically at par with only slight enhancement in pea productivity in the second year. The improvement may be due to residual legume effects enhancing soil nitrogen and organic matter. Proso and kodo millets, being less nutrient-exhaustive, possibly left higher fertility for the succeeding pea. Early sowing also promoted better pod development. Similar outcomes were noted by Franke et al., (2018); Zhao et al., (2022); Olson (2023) and Saskatchewan Pulse Growers (2023).

Table 1: Effect of legume-based cropping sequence on yield attributes and yield of pea crop.


 
Effect of legume-based cropping sequence on productivity of millets grown in summer season
 
Significant variations were recorded in yield attributes and yields of summer millets (Table 2). Among millets sown in summer season Proso millet-based systems (T5 to T9) recorded highest number of effective tillers, followed by foxtail and pearl millet. While, Foxtail millet (T1 to T4) produced significantly higher grains per panicle, while pearl millet (T9 to T12) showed maximum 1000-grain weight and harvest index. Pearl millet recorded the highest grain and straw yields, followed by foxtail millet. Overall, pearl millet-based systems exhibited superior yield performance followed by foxtail millet. Yield improvement was attributed to enhanced availability of nutrients in soil which lead to increase in overall growth and development of crop (Parmar and Thakur, 2017). Moreover, Pearl millet’s deep roots and efficient nutrient utilization contributed to its superior performance (Dhaka et al., 2025; Rao and Kumar, 2023).

Table 2: Effect of legume-based cropping sequence on yield attributes and yield of millets grown in summer season.


 
Effect of legume-based cropping sequence on productivity of millets grown in kharif season
 
Table 3 revealed significant differences in kharif millet productivity, with a slight decline during second year of experiment. Kodo millet (T4, T8 and T12) recorded highest effective tillers, followed by little millet (T3, T7 and T11), while finger millet (T1, T5 and T9) recorded highest grain and straw yield. Overall, finger millet showed superior performance among millets sown in kharif season. Slight decline in yield during second year may be attributed to floods during September month coinciding with late vegetative to reproductive stage of crops sown in kharif season. Finger millet’s superior nutrient efficiency and enhanced soil fertility from the preceding pea crop contributed to its performance (Patil and Raundal, 2018; Arora et al., 2023; Dhaka et al., 2025).

Table 3: Effect of legume-based cropping sequence on yield attributes and yield of millets grown in kharif season.


 
Effect of legume-based cropping sequences on pea equivalent yield and system productivity.
 
Significant differences in pea equivalent yield and system productivity were observed during both years (Table 4). Among millets sown in summer season treatment T3 (Pea-Foxtail millet-Little millet) recorded highest pea equivalent yield, followed by T2 and T1. However, among kharif sown millets, T5 (Pea-Proso millet-Finger millet) and T9 (Pea-Pearl millet-Finger millet) were observed with higher equivalent yield. Treatment T1 and T9 recorded highest system productivity. Overall, sequences integrating finger millet as kharif crop were more efficient in terms of system productivity. Differences reflected combined effects of yield potential and market value (Dhaka et al., 2025; Singh et al., 2022; Singh and Yadav, 2021). However, slight decline in system productivity in 2025 were due to flooding.

Table 4: Effect of legume-based cropping sequence on pea equivalent yield of kharif and summer millets and system productivity.



Effect of legume-based cropping sequence on system profitability
 
Economic analysis (Table 5-8) showed marked variations among systems. For pea, T3 (Pea-Foxtail millet-Little millet) recorded the highest net returns and B:C ratio, followed by T1 and T7. Maximum per-day returns occurred in T7  (Pea-Proso millet-Little millet) and T8 (Pea-Proso millet-Kodo millet). Among summer sown millets, foxtail millet-based systems (T1-T4) were most profitable, while proso millet-based systems (T5-T8) were least profitable due to poor adaptability and low prices. While, among kharif sown millets, T9 (Pea-Proso millet-Finger millet) fetched highest net returns and B:C ratio, followed by T9 and T1. Overall, T1 (Pea-Foxtail millet-Finger millet) yielded maximum system returns (₹ 3,28,948 and ₹ 3,12,354 ha-1) and B:C ratios (2.62 and 2.38), confirming its superior profitability. These findings are in line with those of Patil (2021); Meena et al., (2023) and Dhaka et al., (2025).

Table 5: Effect of legume-based cropping sequence on profitability of pea crop.



Table 6: Effect of legume-based cropping sequence on profitability of millets grown in summer season.



Table 7: Effect of legume-based cropping sequence on millets grown in kharif season.



Table 8: System profitability as effected by legume based cropping sequences.


 
Effect of legume-based cropping systems on soil fertility
 
Fig 2 depicts soil fertility after two years. Available nitrogen and phosphorus showed non-significant variation, indicating balanced nutrient management. However, available potassium differed significantly-highest under T9  (Pea-Pearl millet-Finger millet) (174.79 kg ha-1), followed by T10 and T11. Foxtail and proso millet-based systems (T1-T8) had lower K (159.04-162.39 kg ha-1). Higher K in pearl millet systems was due to RDF containing K‚ O, unlike others with minimal K inputs. Continuous non-K-supplemented cropping depleted soil K, aligning with Majumdar et al., (2019); Kumar et al. (2022) and Pathak et al., (2021), highlighting the need for balanced nutrient replenishment for soil sustainability.

Fig 2: Effect of diversified cropping systems on soil fertility.

CONCLUSION

The two-year study demonstrated that integrating legumes with millets in sequence offers a sustainable intensification strategy for enhancing productivity, profitability and soil fertility under subtropical conditions. Systems involving foxtail or pearl millet in summer, followed by finger or barnyard millet in kharif, performed best. Among all, pea-foxtail millet-finger millet and pea-pearl millet-finger millet proved most profitable, showing higher net returns, benefit-cost ratio and per-day returns. The inclusion of pea as a preceding legume improved soil fertility and boosted subsequent millet yields. However, these findings are primarily applicable to irrigated conditions, as the feasibility and performance of such high-intensity legume-millet sequences under rainfed environments may be constrained by moisture availability. Overall, legume-millet sequences, particularly those involving foxtail, pearl and finger millet, enhance resilience, resource-use efficiency and long-term sustainability of high-intensity cropping systems.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

No external funding was received for this research; however, we sincerely acknowledge the support and assistance provided by Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Jammu in facilitating the conduct of the experiment.
 
Disclaimers
 
The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest associated with this study.

REFERENCES


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    Full Research Article

    Performance of a Diversified Legume-based High-intensity Cropping Sequence on Productivity and Profitability

    F
    Faraaz Farooq1,*
    0009-0000-3309-2464
    N
    Neetu Sharma1
    0000-0002-9773-6262
    V
    Vikas Sharma2
    0000-0002-9961-4795
    B
    Brinder Singh3
    0009-0002-1036-2075
    R
    Rakesh Kumar1
    0009-0005-2527-8185
    J
    Joy Samuel MeCarty1
    0009-0000-6120-5446
    H
    Hritik Srivastava4
    0009-0002-6048-0125
    1Division of Agronomy, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Jammu, Jammu-180 009, Jammu and Kashmir, India.
    2Regional Agricultural Research Station, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Technology and Sciences, Rajouri, Jammu-185 131, Jammu and Kashmir, India.
    3Advance Centre for Rainfed Agriculture, Samba, Jammu-181 133, Jammu and Kashmir, India.
    4Department of Agriculture, Integral Institute of Agricultural Sciences and Technology, Lucknow-226 016, Uttar Pradesh, India.

    • Submitted17-11-2025|

    • Accepted05-01-2026|

    • First Online 17-01-2026|

    • doi 10.18805/LR-5606

    ABSTRACT

    Background: Enhancing productivity while conserving soil and resources is a pre-requisite for achieving sustainable intensification of agro-ecosystems. Diversification by integrating legumes with millets for such high-intensity systems not only offers a potential of improving soil fertility by fixing nitrogen and residue addition but overall enhances proper balance in nutrient cycling, ensures efficient use of land enhancing year-round productivity under irrigated conditions.

    Methods: Field experiment was conducted at Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Jammu under irrigated conditions to evaluate high intensity legume-millet-millet cropping sequences. The study consisted of twelve cropping sequences laid down in a randomized block design with three replications, covering a complete annual cycle from rabi to kharif. Legume crop (Pea) was grown as common rabi crop across all treatments, followed by three millets foxtail millet, proso millet and pearl millet in the summer season and four millets finger millet, barnyard millet, little millet and kodo millet during kharif.

    Result: Productivity of pea remained statistically unaffected during both years. During the summer season, cropping sequences involving pearl millet recorded significantly higher yields followed by foxtail millet. While among the kharif crops, finger millet outperformed other millet crops in sequence in terms of productivity. Overall, cropping systems integrating foxtail or pearl millet during summer and finger millet during kharif achieved the significantly higher system productivity (14,533.92 and 14,582.74 kg ha-1 in the first and second year, respectively) and profitability in terms of benefit : cost ratio of 2.62 and 2.38. Hence, the inclusion of pea-foxtail/pearl millet-finger millet proved to be most productive and economical viable option for irrigated conditions.

    INTRODUCTION

    Continuous cultivation of conventional cereal-based systems such as rice-wheat and maize-wheat has long ensured India’s food security but has now become ecologically and economically unsustainable. These systems have led to declining productivity, soil degradation, nutrient imbalance, and heavy dependence on chemical fertilizers and water-intensive practices, resulting in reduced resource-use efficiency and environmental imbalance (Bo et al., 2025). To achieve long-term sustainability, a transition is needed from input-intensive monocropping to diversified, legume-based systems that enhance soil health and resource efficiency (Farooq et al., 2025; Sharma et al., 2025). Legume-based cropping systems improve soil fertility, productivity and ecological stability by fixing atmospheric nitrogen, adding organic matter and stimulating microbial activity, which enhances soil structure and nutrient cycling (Kamal et al., 2023; 2024). Among legumes, pea (Pisum sativum L.) is a short-duration rabi crop ideally suited for intensive irrigated systems. Apart from being rich in protein, vitamins and minerals, pea improves soil fertility and system productivity, making it a suitable component for diversified high-intensity cropping systems (Parmar and Thakur, 2017; Sandhya et al., 2022 and Thesiya et al., 2019). Millets, termed “nutri-cereals,” have re-emerged as climate-resilient, low-input and nutrient-dense crops suitable for both rainfed and irrigated conditions (Pawase et al., 2019). Species such as finger millet (Eleusine coracana), pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum), little millet (Panicum sumatrense) and foxtail millet (Setaria italica) tolerate drought and poor soils while offering high nutritional value with abundant dietary fibre, iron, zinc and essential amino acids (Goud et al., 2022; Dhaka et al., 2023; Kothapalli et al., 2024; Mukherjee et al., 2025).
           
    Empirical evidence confirms the potential of legume-millet integration for improving productivity, profitability and soil health. Dhaka et al., (2025) reported significant gains in yield and economic returns from legume-millet systems compared to cereal monocropping. Similarly, Shilpa et al., (2025) found that a finger millet + green gram-cow pea sequence achieved the highest system productivity, while Kyuh et al., (2022) observed enhanced carbon sequestration and nitrogen cycling in such rotations.
           
    However, most of these studies have primarily focused on season or location specific rotations, often under rainfed or semi-arid environments, with limited emphasis on year round, high intensity legume-millet systems under irrigated subtropical conditions. In particular empirical information on multi-millet sequences integrating legumes across rabi, summer and kharif seasons remains scarce. Strategic inclusion of pea during rabi followed by short-duration millets in summer and kharif seasons can enhance land-use efficiency, sustain soil fertility and ensure continuous ground cover. Therefore, the present study was undertaken with the following specific objectives:
    1. To evaluate the performance of diversified legume-based high-intensity cropping systems under irrigated conditions of Jammu.
    2. To identify the most productive, profitable and sustainable legume-millet sequence for year-round green cover and ecological balance.

    MATERIALS AND METHODS

    The field experiment was conducted at Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Jammu during 2023-24 and 2024-25 under irrigated conditions (Fig 1). The experimental site experiences a subtropical climate with distinct rabi, kharif and zaid seasons. Total annual rainfall was 1487 mm in 2023-24 and 1751.5 mm in 2024-25, predominantly received during the monsoon period (July-September). Mean summer temperatures ranged from 38 to 40°C. The sandy loam soil (pH 7.72) contained 4.21 g kg-1 organic carbon and available N, P and K of 237.21, 15.86 and 160.21 kg ha-1, respectively. Twelve legume-based high-intensity cropping systems were evaluated, each comprising pea in rabi followed by millets in summer and kharif. The experiment was laid out in a Randomized Block Design (RBD) with three replications and 36 plots (5.4 m × 3.0 m each). Treatments included combinations of pea with foxtail, proso and pearl millet in summer and finger, barnyard, little and kodo millet in kharif. Fertilization was carried out as per the locally recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF). The RDF applied was 40:60:50 kg N:P2O5: K2O ha-1 for pea, 100:60:25 kg N:P2O5: K2O ha1 for pearl millet and 40:20:0 kg N: P2O5: K2O ha-1 for the other millets included in the experiment. Weed control involved pre-emergence application of pendimethalin (1.0 kg a.i. ha-1) followed by hand weeding at 30 DAS. Irrigation was applied at critical stages; proso millet received an extra irrigation, while kharif millets were rainfed. In pea, pod weight and green pod yield were recorded, while in millets, yield attributes and grain yields were measured. System productivity was expressed as pea equivalent yield (PEY) following Yadav et al., (2018) and total system productivity was the sum of rabi, summer and kharif PEY. Economic analysis was performed using prevailing prices of inputs and outputs. Prices of finger millet and pearl millet were considered as per the Minimum Support Price (MSP) notified for the respective years, while prices of vegetable pea and other millets were based on the auction prices recorded at SKUAST-Jammu during the corresponding cropping seasons (2023-24 and 2024-25). Input costs were calculated based on actual field expenditure. Soil samples (0-15 cm) were analyzed for pH (Jackson, 1973), organic carbon (Walkley and Black, 1934) and available N (Subbiah and Asija, 1956), P (Olsen et al., 1954) and K (Jackson, 1973) using standard methods. Data were analysed year-wise using analysis of variance (ANOVA) under a randomized block design (RBD) with IBM SPSS (v29.0) and treatment means were compared at p≤0.05.

    Fig 1: Study area.

    RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

    Effect of legume-based cropping sequence on productivity of pea crop
     
    Table 1 shows that pod weight per plant and green pod yield of pea were statistically at par across diversified legume-based cropping sequences during both years. However, both parameters improved slightly in the second year, reflecting a cumulative positive effect. Treatment T3 (Pea-Foxtail millet-Little millet) and T8 (Pea-Proso millet-Kodo millet) recorded highest pod weight and pod yield during first and second year, respectively. Overall, all sequences were statistically at par with only slight enhancement in pea productivity in the second year. The improvement may be due to residual legume effects enhancing soil nitrogen and organic matter. Proso and kodo millets, being less nutrient-exhaustive, possibly left higher fertility for the succeeding pea. Early sowing also promoted better pod development. Similar outcomes were noted by Franke et al., (2018); Zhao et al., (2022); Olson (2023) and Saskatchewan Pulse Growers (2023).

    Table 1: Effect of legume-based cropping sequence on yield attributes and yield of pea crop.


     
    Effect of legume-based cropping sequence on productivity of millets grown in summer season
     
    Significant variations were recorded in yield attributes and yields of summer millets (Table 2). Among millets sown in summer season Proso millet-based systems (T5 to T9) recorded highest number of effective tillers, followed by foxtail and pearl millet. While, Foxtail millet (T1 to T4) produced significantly higher grains per panicle, while pearl millet (T9 to T12) showed maximum 1000-grain weight and harvest index. Pearl millet recorded the highest grain and straw yields, followed by foxtail millet. Overall, pearl millet-based systems exhibited superior yield performance followed by foxtail millet. Yield improvement was attributed to enhanced availability of nutrients in soil which lead to increase in overall growth and development of crop (Parmar and Thakur, 2017). Moreover, Pearl millet’s deep roots and efficient nutrient utilization contributed to its superior performance (Dhaka et al., 2025; Rao and Kumar, 2023).

    Table 2: Effect of legume-based cropping sequence on yield attributes and yield of millets grown in summer season.


     
    Effect of legume-based cropping sequence on productivity of millets grown in kharif season
     
    Table 3 revealed significant differences in kharif millet productivity, with a slight decline during second year of experiment. Kodo millet (T4, T8 and T12) recorded highest effective tillers, followed by little millet (T3, T7 and T11), while finger millet (T1, T5 and T9) recorded highest grain and straw yield. Overall, finger millet showed superior performance among millets sown in kharif season. Slight decline in yield during second year may be attributed to floods during September month coinciding with late vegetative to reproductive stage of crops sown in kharif season. Finger millet’s superior nutrient efficiency and enhanced soil fertility from the preceding pea crop contributed to its performance (Patil and Raundal, 2018; Arora et al., 2023; Dhaka et al., 2025).

    Table 3: Effect of legume-based cropping sequence on yield attributes and yield of millets grown in kharif season.


     
    Effect of legume-based cropping sequences on pea equivalent yield and system productivity.
     
    Significant differences in pea equivalent yield and system productivity were observed during both years (Table 4). Among millets sown in summer season treatment T3 (Pea-Foxtail millet-Little millet) recorded highest pea equivalent yield, followed by T2 and T1. However, among kharif sown millets, T5 (Pea-Proso millet-Finger millet) and T9 (Pea-Pearl millet-Finger millet) were observed with higher equivalent yield. Treatment T1 and T9 recorded highest system productivity. Overall, sequences integrating finger millet as kharif crop were more efficient in terms of system productivity. Differences reflected combined effects of yield potential and market value (Dhaka et al., 2025; Singh et al., 2022; Singh and Yadav, 2021). However, slight decline in system productivity in 2025 were due to flooding.

    Table 4: Effect of legume-based cropping sequence on pea equivalent yield of kharif and summer millets and system productivity.



    Effect of legume-based cropping sequence on system profitability
     
    Economic analysis (Table 5-8) showed marked variations among systems. For pea, T3 (Pea-Foxtail millet-Little millet) recorded the highest net returns and B:C ratio, followed by T1 and T7. Maximum per-day returns occurred in T7  (Pea-Proso millet-Little millet) and T8 (Pea-Proso millet-Kodo millet). Among summer sown millets, foxtail millet-based systems (T1-T4) were most profitable, while proso millet-based systems (T5-T8) were least profitable due to poor adaptability and low prices. While, among kharif sown millets, T9 (Pea-Proso millet-Finger millet) fetched highest net returns and B:C ratio, followed by T9 and T1. Overall, T1 (Pea-Foxtail millet-Finger millet) yielded maximum system returns (₹ 3,28,948 and ₹ 3,12,354 ha-1) and B:C ratios (2.62 and 2.38), confirming its superior profitability. These findings are in line with those of Patil (2021); Meena et al., (2023) and Dhaka et al., (2025).

    Table 5: Effect of legume-based cropping sequence on profitability of pea crop.



    Table 6: Effect of legume-based cropping sequence on profitability of millets grown in summer season.



    Table 7: Effect of legume-based cropping sequence on millets grown in kharif season.



    Table 8: System profitability as effected by legume based cropping sequences.


     
    Effect of legume-based cropping systems on soil fertility
     
    Fig 2 depicts soil fertility after two years. Available nitrogen and phosphorus showed non-significant variation, indicating balanced nutrient management. However, available potassium differed significantly-highest under T9  (Pea-Pearl millet-Finger millet) (174.79 kg ha-1), followed by T10 and T11. Foxtail and proso millet-based systems (T1-T8) had lower K (159.04-162.39 kg ha-1). Higher K in pearl millet systems was due to RDF containing K‚ O, unlike others with minimal K inputs. Continuous non-K-supplemented cropping depleted soil K, aligning with Majumdar et al., (2019); Kumar et al. (2022) and Pathak et al., (2021), highlighting the need for balanced nutrient replenishment for soil sustainability.

    Fig 2: Effect of diversified cropping systems on soil fertility.

    CONCLUSION

    The two-year study demonstrated that integrating legumes with millets in sequence offers a sustainable intensification strategy for enhancing productivity, profitability and soil fertility under subtropical conditions. Systems involving foxtail or pearl millet in summer, followed by finger or barnyard millet in kharif, performed best. Among all, pea-foxtail millet-finger millet and pea-pearl millet-finger millet proved most profitable, showing higher net returns, benefit-cost ratio and per-day returns. The inclusion of pea as a preceding legume improved soil fertility and boosted subsequent millet yields. However, these findings are primarily applicable to irrigated conditions, as the feasibility and performance of such high-intensity legume-millet sequences under rainfed environments may be constrained by moisture availability. Overall, legume-millet sequences, particularly those involving foxtail, pearl and finger millet, enhance resilience, resource-use efficiency and long-term sustainability of high-intensity cropping systems.

    ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

    No external funding was received for this research; however, we sincerely acknowledge the support and assistance provided by Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Jammu in facilitating the conduct of the experiment.
     
    Disclaimers
     
    The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.

    CONFLICT OF INTEREST

    The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest associated with this study.

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