<div>Background: There are few scientific reports of the occurrence of wooden breast (WB) in Thailand. This study aimed to evaluate the incidence and effect of WB on the physical and chemical properties of meat from chickens reared under an evaporative cooling system (EVAP).&nbsp; 
 
Methods: A total 124 broiler chickens (BW = 2721.27&plusmn;273.40 g) were selected from a group of 588 male broiler chickens (at 36 days of age). The WB meat (left site) score of each chicken was identified as being normal, moderate or severe. In order to compare the effect of the WB score on meat quality, based on the number of chickens in the normal group, the number of chickens in the moderate and severe groups were equalised (19 birds/group). The effects of the WB score on pH, colour, drip loss, thawing loss and cooking loss of the meat were observed.&nbsp; 
 
Result: The body weight of normal meat, moderate WB and severe WB was 2525.26&plusmn;221.49, 2683.53&plusmn;273.17 and 2883.78&plusmn;211.90 g, respectively. The severe WB score occurred when the body weight (g) was heavier than the normal meat group for 14.19% (P&lt;0.01). At 24 hours, the pH, drip loss, cooking loss and water content of the severe WB group was significantly higher, while the protein content in the severe WB group was lower than the normal meat group (P&lt;0.01). Moreover, the severe WB group presented higher lightness, redness and yellowness values compared to the normal meat group (P&lt;0.01). In conclusion, a larger body of broiler chickens, greater than 14% of the strain&rsquo;s recommendation induced a severe WB score, which caused poor meat quality.&nbsp;</div>

Physical and Chemical Properties of Meat in Relation to Wooden Breast Myopathies in Male Broiler Chickens Raised in Evaporative Cooling Systems

<div>Background: New chicken breeds are being evolved for backyard rural poultry production to overcome the slow growth, late sexual maturity and poor production of indigenous breeds. However, autochthonous poultry is epitomized for quality attributes of their products. With this in mind, the present study for the first time explored the antioxidant capacity of meat obtained from a unique Indian chicken, Kadaknath and a synthetic breed of poultry, Jabalpur colour (JBC).&nbsp; 
 
Methods: During the period 2018-2020, breast and thigh meat were collected from chickens (n=20/ group) at their commercial slaughter age (20 weeks). Meat extract was used for qualitative evaluation. Antioxidant activity was explored using five well established in vitro methods testing for different antioxidant mechanisms.&nbsp; 
 
Result: Both, Kadaknath and JBC meat was proteinaceous with higher protein concentration (g/100 g of wet weight) in the breast (Kadaknath, 25.21&plusmn;0.31 and JBC, 25.65&plusmn;0.39) than the thigh (Kadaknath, 19.98&plusmn;0.29 and JBC, 19.04&plusmn;0.23). Both the groups exhibited antioxidant capacity in all the assays. They showed good radical scavenging for ABTS and DPPH free radicals. Superiority of Kadaknath meat was ascertained unequivocally by the three assays viz. Ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), lipid oxidation inhibition (TBARS) and metal chelating capacity. FRAP values (mM Fe2+/g of tissue) were 26.97&plusmn;0.37 and 33.85&plusmn;0.47 (Kadaknath) and 22.84&plusmn;0.25 and 26.82&plusmn;0.36 (JBC) for breast and thigh, respectively. Similarly, Kadaknath meat was more potent (% inhibition) iron chelator (breast, 62.71&plusmn;0.99 and thigh, 75.07&plusmn;0.98) in comparison to the JBC (breast, 46.30&plusmn;2.36 and thigh, 63.12&plusmn;1.87). Breast meat had better scavenging capacity than the thigh except in FRAP and metal chelating assays. Results provide insight into the antioxidant potential of backyard poultry germplasm thus, laying foundation for developing marketing strategies targeting consumers interested in nutritional quality, animal welfare and environmental sustainability. Furthermore, baseline data has been generated for studying medicinal properties attributed to the black chicken meat of Kadaknath.</div>

<div>Quality Characteristics of Breast and Thigh Chicken Meat from Free- Range System: Comparative Antioxidant Profile of Indigenous and Improved Germplasm</div>

Background: Tilmicosin is an antimycoplasmic drug of great utility in controlling mycoplasmosis in chicken. The drug despite its efficacy, has a high residue impact leading to a long withdrawal period. In this study, an attempt has been made to rationalize the dosage to reduce the residue burden by adopting a lower dose. 
&nbsp; 
Methods: The dose of tilmicosin was arrived at based on a pilot study wherein different doses were administered, and the levels were checked in plasma and meat. In the main study, tilmicosin was administered to broiler chicken as a bolus oral dose or &ldquo;in drinking water&rdquo; at the dose rate of 25 mg. kg-1&nbsp;body weight. Blood was collected at different time points for the study. A trial to assay drug residues in tissues was also carried out. The assay of tilmicosin in chicken plasma/tissues was done using a sensitive HPLC assay. 
&nbsp; 
Result: In both pharmacokinetics study groups, tilmicosin concentrations could be reasonably detected only in 4 of the eight birds tested. In the birds that responded, the mean plasma concentrations remained above the MIC values of 0.05 &micro;g.ml-1. The residue level in the lung and muscle could be detected up to day 14, and no residue from 18th&nbsp;day, after administration of tilmicosin through drinking water. The lung, the organ of mycoplasma infection revealed high concentrations of tilmicosin up to 14 days after the last dose. The results show that the Tilmicosin administered at a reduced rate of 25 mg.Kg-1 can be useful therapeutically, with a reduced residue burden in broiler chicken. 
&nbsp;

Pharmacokinetics and Chicken Meat Residue of Tilmicosin after Administration Through Drinking Water in Broiler Chicken

<div>Background: Meat and meat products are good source of proteins and essential amino acids for health. These products are contaminated with various pathogens like S. aureus, Salmonella spp, E coli and Listeria spp., S. aureus is one of most important food borne pathogen associated with food products. The present study was carried out to estimate prevalence of S. aureus and their molecular characterization in raw chicken meat and ready-to-eat chicken products in Jabalpur city. 
 
Methods: The samples were collected from different retails outlets and processed as per standard microbiological procedures for isolation of S. aureus and subjected further for molecular characterization and processed to assess the prevalence of S. aureus. A total of 100 raw chicken meat and 70 ready to eat chicken meat products (chicken samosa, momos, pattis, tikka, barbeque etc.) have been collected.&nbsp; 
 
Result: The overall prevalence of S. aureus was observed 38.82% with 38.00% in raw chicken meat and 40.00% in ready-to-eat chicken (RTE) products. The molecular study revealed that all the S. aureus isolates were positive for 16s ribosomal RNA (rRNA). Out of 66 isolates, 27 (71.05%) from raw chicken meat and 12 (42.85%) from ready to eat chicken meat products isolates were found to be positive for sea gene where as 3 (7.8%) isolates from raw chicken meat and 6 (21.42%) from ready-to-eat chicken products were found positive for nuc gene respectively.</div>

Prevalence and Virulence Characterization of Staphylococcus aureus Isolates from Chicken Meat and Ready to Eat Chicken Products to Assess Hygiene and Consumer Safety

<div>Background: Indian domesticated chickens have a wide variety of phenotypes. Unlike other chicken breeds, Kadaknath chicken has black meat and is used by indigenous tribal people for its invigorating and therapeutic properties. To look for the functional traits that might be contributing towards the acclaimed benefits, free radical scavenging capacity and metal chelating ability of Kadaknath meat were explored for the first time in comparison to the commercial Cobb broiler.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: During the period 2018-2020, breast and thigh meat were collected from chickens (n=20/ group) at their commercial slaughter age. Meat extract was used for qualitative evaluation of protein as well as the antioxidant capacity utilizing diverse in vitro methods corresponding to different antioxidation mechanisms. 
 
Result: Protein concentration (g/100g of tissue) in Kadaknath breast (25.25 &plusmn; 0.31) and thigh (19.98 &plusmn; 0.29) meat was significantly (P &lt; 0.05) higher than the Cobb. Breast meat had better scavenging capacity than the thigh. The superiority of the antioxidant capacity of Kadaknath meat was explicitly established by more than one in vitro assay. Free radical scavenging assays viz. 2,2-azinobis (3-ethyl-benzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS); 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and Cupric reducing antioxidant capacity (CUPRAC) had significantly (P &lt; 0.05) higher values for Kadaknath in comparison to the Cobb broiler meat. Ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) values (mM Fe2+/g of tissue) were also more in breast meat of Kadaknath (26.97&plusmn;0.37) than the Cobb (15.24&plusmn;0.40). Similarly, FRAP values were higher in Kadaknath (33.85&plusmn;0.47) than the Cobb (19.2&plusmn;0.31) thigh meat. Kadaknath had higher antioxidant capacity as reflected by metal chelation inhibition value. These findings help to explain the unique nutritional and functional characteristics of Kadaknath black-bone chicken and provide basic research data for exploring the commercial potential of its meat in the fields of functional foods, cosmeceuticals and nuutraceuticals.</div>

<div>First Report on Better Functional Property of Black Chicken Meat from India</div>

The present study was performed to determine the carcass and meat quality characteristics of male and female Ovambo and Potchefstroom koekoek (PK) indigenous chickens. A total of 320 male and female day old Ovambo and PK were randomly assigned to a 2 (breed) &times; 2 (sex) factorial arrangement in a completely randomised design. The chickens were raised from day-old and fed on a commercial grower diet containing 11.5 MJ/ME kg DM and 20 % crude protein until 18 weeks of age. Carcass traits of the Ovambo and PK were similar; however, male chickens had higher carcass traits than their female counterparts. Breed, sex and time interactions influenced colour parameters of thigh and drumstick meat except redness (a*) and yellowness (b*) values of chicken breast meat. The pH varied significantly amongst the breeds, sex and time period. The sensory evaluations of the chicken breeds were observed to be similar. However, tenderness of the breast meat as measured by shear force was higher for PK than Ovambo chickens. Fatty acid profiles of the chickens were not affected by breed or sex. The ratios of n-6 and n-3 fatty acids were significantly lower in both breeds which are desirable in reducing the risk of many diseases. Ovambo and PK chickens showed good meat quality traits. This information can assist in promoting production of indigenous chicken lines in South Africa.&nbsp;

Carcass and meat quality characteristics of South African indigenous chickens

<div>Background: The commercial rearing of native chicken has been gaining importance due to higher demand for natural and organic meat. In this context the present study was designed to compare the carcass and meat quality characteristics of native chicken reared under backyard system as compared to native chicken reared under farm setting in Karnataka. 
 
Methods: Sixty (30 backyard and 30 farm reared) native birds were used to evaluate the carcass characteristics viz., dressing per cent, yield of cut up parts and meat bone ratio. Breast muscle was used to evaluate physico-chemical (pH, WHC, colour, drip loss and cooking loss), compositional (proximate composition, cholesterol content and collagen content), structural characteristics (muscle fibre diameter, sarcomere length, shear force) and sensory characteristics. 
 
Result: A significant difference (P&lt;0.05) in live weight, carcass weight and dressing per centage was evident in backyard native chicken (BNC) and farm reared native chicken with higher weight being recorded in FNC, whereas no significance could be observed in yield of various primal cuts between them. Physico-chemical and compositional characteristics revealed no significant difference, whereas farm reared birds had lower shear force and collagen compared to backyard birds. Sensory evaluation revealed no negative influence on any of the eating quality indicating that commercial rearing of native chicken could be advocated for faster growth of native birds without compromising on the quality of meat.</div>

<div>Carcass and Meat Quality Characteristics of Native Chicken Reared under Backyard and Farm Setting in Karnataka</div>

<div>Background: Meat and meat products are perishable due to high content of moisture and easy availability of other nutrients. Oxidative rancidity and microbial growth are the major causes of their spoilage. Synthetic antioxidants viz. BHA, BHT, TBHQ etc. are used in the chicken processing industry for maintaining quality of chicken products. However, due to evidence of their toxic effects on human health there is interest in the scientists and manufacturers to use natural preservatives with antioxidants and antimicrobials properties. Hence, the study was undertaken to assess the effect of custard apple (Annona squamosa) leaves extract (CLE), on the quality of chicken breast fillets.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: Chicken breast fillets were treated separately by dipping in 0.1, 0.3 and 0.5% aqueous solutions of CLE, distilled water and 100 ppm solution of BHT. Samples were stored under refrigeration (4&plusmn;1oC) conditions and analyzed on 0th, 3rd, 6th and 9th day of storage.&nbsp; 
 
Result: Total phenolic content, ascorbic acid content, DPPH radical scavenging assay and ferric reducing antioxidant power of CLE were 57.13&plusmn;0.22 &micro;gGAE/mg, 163.23&plusmn;0.40 &micro;gAA/mg, 32.20&plusmn;0.42% and 132.43&plusmn;0.50 &micro;MFe (II) equi/g respectively. The fillets treated with 0.5% solution of CLE were acceptable till sixth day with significantly (p&lt;0.01) higher sensory scores than the controls. The pH, WHC, ERV, tyrosine value, TBARS value, total plate count and psychrophilic count of the sixth day samples treated with 0.5% CLE were 5.72&plusmn;0.01, 65.32&plusmn;0.31%, 19.40&plusmn;0.59ml, 9.50&plusmn;0.37 mg/100g, 0.316&plusmn;0.002 mgMDA/Kg, 4.90&plusmn;0.01 log10CFU/g and 3.68&plusmn;0.02 log10CFU/g respectively. It can be concluded that 0.5% aqueous solution of CLE can be used for extension of shelf life of chicken breast fillets up to 6 days at refrigeration (4&plusmn;1oC).&nbsp;</div>

Quality Assessment of Chicken Breast Fillets Treated with Custard Apple (Annona squamosa) Leaves Extract

Background: Chinese herbal medicine are rich in nutrients and active ingredients, with advantages such as immune function, antioxidant capacity, stress reduction, tumor inhibition and improved meat quality. The effects of Chinese herbal medicines on the muscle microstructure and meat quality of broiler chickens were investigated by feeding with compound Chinese herbal medicines composed of stir-fried Atractylodes macrocephala, licorice, astragalus, hawthorn fruit, poria cocos, isatis root, dried tangerine peel and common yam rhizome. 
 
Methods: The 800, 1-day-old, chickens were allocated to 4 treatments with 5 replicates, each replicate containing 40 birds. Birds were fed diets supplemented with 0.5%, 1.0% and 1.5% compound Chinese herbal medicines for a period of 7 weeks ad libitum. At 21 and 42 days old, the birds were slaughtered and the breast and thigh muscles were sampled from 4 birds per replicate to determine meat quality and microstructure of muscle. 
 
Result: The results revealed that 1.0% compound Chinese herbal medicines significantly increased water holding capacity of the thigh muscle and decreased drip loss, cooking loss and water loss rate of 21-day-old broiler chickens. Moreover, 1.0% compound Chinese herbal medicine significantly decreased the muscle fibers diameters of breast and thigh muscle. Microscopic observation showed that 0.5% and 1.0% compound Chinese herbal medicines decreased the fibers diameters of muscle fibers. The results indicated that the addition of 0.5% and 1.0% compound Chinese herbal medicines in the diets could promote muscle growth and improve the meat quality of broiler chickens.

Effects of Chinese Herbal Medicines on the Muscle Growth and Meat Quality of Broiler Chickens

Background: Limited information is available on the enrichment of omega-3 fatty acids and their stability in poultry products during their processing and preservation. Keeping this on view, the present study was undertaken to develop chicken meat sausages enriched with omega-3 fatty acids by incorporation of flax seed oil at different levels.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: The present investigation on standardization of the different levels of flax seed oil (2, 4 and 6%) on various physico-chemical, proximate, omega-3-fatty acid profile and sensory scores of functional chicken meat sausages was investigated. The developed functional chicken meat sausages were analyzed for various quality characteristics like physico-chemical (cooking yield, emulsion stability, water holding capacity, pH and hardness and proximate composition, omega-3-fatty acid profile and sensory evaluation.&nbsp; 
 
Result: Chicken meat sausages added with 6% flax seed oil (T3) had significantly (P&lt;0.05) higher cooking yield, emulsion stability, water holding capacity, protein and fat than control and remaining formulations. In the same line, chicken meat sausages added with 6% flax seed oil (T3) had lower SFA values and higher MUFA values, n-6 PUFA and n-3 PUFA values, n6 PUFA/n3 PUFA ratio and PUFA/SFA ratio and superior sensory scores than control and other formulations. The addition of flax seed oil to chicken meat sausages improved the healthy fatty acid profile.