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Review Article

Potential, Challenges and Strategies for Sustainable Growth of Fiji’s Turmeric Industry: A Review

Deeksha Krishna1,*, Hirdesh Kumar Sachan2, Ilisoni L.V. Leweniqila2
  • 0000-0001- 9394- 119x, 0000-0003-0011-5943, 0000- 0001-9263-4817
1Department of Soil Science and Biosystem Engineering, College of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Fiji National University, Nausori-1544, Fiji.
2Department of Crop Science, College of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Fiji National University, Nausori-1544, Fiji.

ABSTRACT

Fiji’s turmeric industry generates about $30 million yearly, making it the third-largest agricultural export of Fiji in 2022. Despite Fiji’s favourable agro-climatic conditions and high curcumin content, turmeric production is still wild-gathered with little organised cultivation. This paper analyses Fiji’s turmeric production, stressing agronomic, socio-economic and infrastructural issues. Fiji’s turmeric production shows immense potential but faces several significant challenges. High-quality planting supplies, pest and disease management and post-harvest processing facilities are scarce. Sustainable agriculture, value-added processing and market integration can boost turmeric production. Exploring organic certification, technological advances and increased export markets positions Fiji’s turmeric sector for sustainable worldwide expansion.

INTRODUCTION

Turmeric is extracted from the root of the Curcuma longa plant. Turmeric has many health advantages, including anti-inflammatory and antibacterial qualities. It is primarily grown in tropical regions and India produces over 80% of the global supply (Husen,2024; Khawale and Chinchmalatpure, 2023). In Fiji, turmeric is gaining recognition not only for its economic value but also for its cultural and medicinal significance (Kandiannan et al., 2020a and b). The production of turmeric in Fiji is a traditional agricultural practice, deeply embedded in the local culture (Fig 1 and 2). Turmeric, which belongs to the Zingiberaceae family, is highly prized for its powerful therapeutic characteristics, particularly its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and immunostimulatory activities (Bokelmann, 2022; Soni et al., 2022; Nguyen et al., 2024). 

Fig 1: Turmeric in Fiji (Source: https://turmericfiji.com and https://www.ranadiorganics.com/).



Fig 2: Annual production of major spices by division in the 6 years (2016-2021) [Source: MoA,2021].


       
Turmeric is used globally as a spice for culinary purposes, a colouring agent and as a traditional medicine. For example, the United States has embraced turmeric in both medical and cosmetic practices. The global production of turmeric in 2020 was approximately 1.1 million metric tons (MT), with an expected increase to 1.5 million MT by 2027. The global trade value of turmeric in 2022 was $356.1 million, with the market projected to grow at a compound annual growth rate of 16.1% through 2028 (GVR, 2021; Nguyen et al., 2024). Fiji’s turmeric industry generates about $30 million yearly, making it the third-largest agricultural export in 2022 for Fiji. It is the 9th major exporter in the world (contributed 0.8% to world turmeric export) (MoA, 2023) (Table 5). Despite Fiji’s favourable agro-climatic conditions and high curcumin content, turmeric production is still growing wild with little organised cultivation (FAO, 2022). In June 2024, the export in the first half of 2024 as compared to the same period in 2023 for Tumeric increased by 22.5%, i.e., from F$ 10.0 million to F$ 12.3 million (MoA, 2024).

Traditional medicine- turmeric
 
In traditional medicine, turmeric has been used in therapeutic preparations over the centuries in various parts of the world (Prasad and Aggarwal, 2011; Abd El Hack et al., 2021; El-Saadony, 2023). Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) is from the family Zingiberaceae and known by Fijian names Cago, rerega, avea, haldi (Fijian Hindi), Kandiannan et al., 2020 (a and b). Turmeric is a common, naturalised, erect, unbranched herb up to 1 m high, with large oblong leaves and yellow flowers which form dense clumps. It is widely distributed in tropical countries. The fleshy rhizome is used in the preparation of the aromatic condiment of commerce turmeric and the orange coloured (rerega) was once used for ceremonial occasions (Lako et al., 2007).
       
The plant possesses local as well as systemic anti-inflammatory activity (Aalbersberg, 1990). An infusion of the root is reported to be highly valued by sufferers of bladder trouble, retention of urine, cystitis and associated illness and by women at the time of parturition (Prasad and Singh, 1980, Parham, 1943; Sirisidthi et al., 2016; MoA, 2021). The tuberous stem or root is said to be pounded and squeezed into the water to prepare a remedy after eating poisonous fish (Cambie and Ash, 1994). The powder of the rhizome is said to have antiseptic and soothing properties and to have been used sometimes to paint newborn babies and mothers after childbirth (Susanti et al., 2021; Trinh et al., 2022; Bachynski, 2024). It is also used as a medicinal poultice to relieve pain and improve flexibility in osteoarthritis patients (Srikaew et al., 2024).  A decoction of the rhizome is applied to treat eye trouble and is taken by new mothers to promote lactation (Weiner, 1978; Blyth, 1887). In Toga, the powder is used as an antiseptic to paint a mother’s body before parturition (Zepernick, 1972). The active compound in turmeric, curcumin, is known for its antioxidant properties and its role in treating various ailments such as cancer, hypertension and rheumatic diseases. Recent studies suggest turmeric extract may serve as a prebiotic, promoting beneficial gut bacteria and enhancing immune function (Yazdi et al., 2019).
 
Culinary and economic importance
 
Turmeric is not only used in culinary applications but also in herbal beverages, which are becoming popular in Fiji (Pudiastutiningtyas et al., 2015). This trend reflects a growing interest in natural health products. While turmeric’s benefits are well-documented, challenges such as genetic variability and market supply remain critical for its sustainable cultivation and utilisation in regions like Fiji. Fijians’ spice usage was surveyed in March-April 2019. Structured survey proformas were sent to 103 families. According to Kandiannan et al., 2020 (a and b), 49.0% of the sample is Fijian, 38.0 % Fiji-Indian, 5.0 % Chinese, 3.0 % English and 5.0 % others which includes Indian, Papua New Guinea, Rotuman, Togan people with average family size of 6, 5, 6, 5 and 6, respectively and means of spices used are 9, 15, 9, 4 and 9. Fiji-Indian usage averages 15 spices, while English uses 4 spices (Table 1). Onion was utilised the most (3.0 kg/month), followed by garlic (1.6 kg). The survey also found that fresh coriander leaf (259 g), ginger (461 g), green chilli (322 g), turmeric dry powder (229g), mustard seed (146 g), masala powder (214 g) tamarind (144 g), cumin seed (138 g) and fresh turmeric and fenugreek seed each 100 g were typically used every month (Kandiannan et al., 2020 a and b). Less than 100 g of spices are used every month. Fiji Indians use more spices and less English, while others use somewhat. Fijians used the most fresh ginger (498 g/month), followed by Fiji-Indians (474 g/month). Australia, New Zealand, the USA, etc. import Fijian spices. Every grocery store and supermarket includes a spice section and numerous companies manufacture spices Kandiannan et al., (2020 a and b). The companies mentioned in Kandiannan et al., 2020  are Ganga (Fiji) Ltd, Ahmed and Co., Shiu Prasad and Sons Ltd, D Kumar Singh Limited, Punja and Sons (Spice) Ltd, Indiana Spices, Dayal’s Spices and Kava Ltd, Naveen bhai P. Patel and Co. Ltd., Hardip Narayan and Sons Ltd, Salend’s Best Quality Spice, Home Maid Pickles Ltd etc.

Table 1: Average turmeric consumption in grams per month per family in Fiji. [Source: Kandiannan et al., 2020 (a and b)].


 
Methodology
 
A qualitative and descriptive approach was adopted to analyse the current status, challenges and opportunities in Fiji’s turmeric industry. Information was collected through a combination of secondary data sources, including published journal articles, government reports, trade statistics, case studies and industry publications. Relevant literature and data were selected based on their credibility, recency and relevance to the agronomic, socio-economic and infrastructural aspects of turmeric production in Fiji.
 
Location and geographic distribution
 
Fiji location
 
The island nation of Fiji is located in the South Pacific Ocean (Sharma et al., 2021). It is made up of 332 islands, but only 110 are habitable (Kumar, 2010; FAO, 2016).  The whole size of the country is 18,270 km2. Viti Levu and Vanua Levu are the two largest islands. They cover 10,429 km2 and 5,556 km2, which is 57% and 30% of the total land area of the country, respectively (Fig 3). Taveuni, which covers 435 km2 and Kadavu, which covers 408 km2, are two smaller islands that make up around 4.6% land area of Fiji. Most of the other islands are also very small. Fiji is split into a total of 14 provinces and Rotuma is designated a dependency for logistical reasons. It is thought that there are 425,000 ha of agricultural land, which is 23% of the whole country. This includes arable land, fixed crops, permanent meadows and pasture and other land used for farming. It was thought that there were 250,000 ha of cultivated land in 2013; 165,000 ha were used for temporary crops and 85,000 ha were used for regular crops (FAO, 2016). The islands are made up of barrier reefs, atolls, sand clays and higher coral islands. The islands are all high and were formed by volcanoes.

Fig 3: Map of the Fiji Islands [Source: Sharma et al., 2021].


       
These two islands are both mountainous, with altitudes that are 1,323 m and 1,032 m above sea level, respectively. The higher parts of both islands used to have tropical rainforest, but now there is secondary forest and grassland on the lower hills where the rainforest used to be. The lowest, flattest land is used for farming and big parts of both islands are used to grow sugarcane. More than half of the land that is farmed is only used to grow three types of crops: coconuts (26%), sugarcane (17%), roots and potatoes (10%) (FAO, 2016). The second largest sector of the Fijian economy is agriculture, which is currently worth about $690 million (FJ$1.5 billion) and contributes roughly 8.1% of the country’s GDP  in 2021, including 1.1% of the sugar business. More than 83% of Fiji’s rural population relies on agriculture as their primary source of employment and 27% of the country’s population depends on it for their livelihood. (MoA, 2021; UNFCCC, 2022).  Fiji’s agriculture and food production sector relies on subsistence farming and sugarcane production, while crops, livestock and fisheries provide revenue, livelihoods and jobs. 65% of farmers own 1 ha or less, Summit Dialogues Fiji, (2021). Tropical fruits (pineapple, pawpaw and mango), sugarcane, traditional food crops (dalo, cassava and yaqona), vegetables, spices, cocoa, coconut products, beef, dairy, hog, poultry, goat and beef stocks are all produced in Fiji. The industry is responsible for 5% of domestic exports and 19.6% of food imports. (MoA, 2020; MoA, 2021; UNFCCC, 2022).
       
Fiji has an oceanic tropical climate with a dry season from May to October and a rainy season from November to April. Rising sea levels and marine temperatures from climate change will impact the country’s coastal resources. Since the country is prone to El Nino episodes, cyclones and other tropical storms may grow in frequency and strength. El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events cause drier and hotter temperatures from June to August. Tropical cyclones usually hit Fiji in November-April (ESCAP, 2022).
 
Turmeric geographic distribution and agro-climatic conditions in Fiji

Turmeric cultivation in Fiji is concentrated mainly on the larger islands of Viti Levu and Vanua Levu, particularly in the Central and Northern Divisions (MoA, 2021). The Annual Production of Turmeric by divisions in Fiji is provided in (Table 2). These regions provide the ideal agro-climatic conditions required for turmeric production, including a warm, humid climate with well-distributed rainfall and well-drained loamy soils (Fig 4). The provinces (Table 3) of Naitasiri, Tailevu and Ra in Viti Levu, as well as Cakaudrove and Macuata in Vanua Levu, are among the primary turmeric-growing areas in Fiji (MoA, 2023).

Table 2: Annual production (Tonnes) of turmeric by divisions in Fiji [Source: MoA, 2021].



Fig 4: Soil suitable for turmeric production in Fiji [Source: Pacific Soils Portal Fiji, 2024].



Table 3: Annual production of turmeric by provinces in Fiji [Source: MoA, 2021].


       
In these areas, smallholder farmers grow turmeric under rain-fed conditions, often as an intercrop with ginger, taro and cassava, which are more dominant crops in the local farming systems. In Fiji, the development of exotic specialist crops such as turmeric and mango occurred concurrently with micro-tourism initiatives (Glencross et al., 2017).
 
Species cultivated
 
Most farmers in Fiji cultivate traditional local varieties of turmeric, which are especially well-suited to the climatic and soil conditions of the region. These varieties are known for their high curcumin content, a key bioactive compound responsible for turmeric’s medicinal properties and vibrant colour. However, there is a lack of standardised information regarding the specific characteristics of these varieties, such as yield potential, resistance to pests and diseases and suitability for different agroecological zones. The Ministry of Agriculture, Fiji, in collaboration with local and international research institutions, has initiated efforts to identify and promote high-yielding and disease-resistant varieties to boost production and ensure consistency in quality (Singh et al., 2022). Curcuma longa is widely harvested but mostly collected from the wild. Organised cultivation is minimal, but processing facilities have been set up to enhance export quality. For Curcuma amada Roxb., while there is no clear documentation of its introduction to Fiji, it is now cultivated and exported. It is popular in cooking and valued for its medicinal properties, however, Curcuma aeruginosa Roxb. is found in locations like Wainadoi and Taveuni in Fiji (Table 4 and Fig 5).

Table 4: Different Curcuma species and their uses in Fiji [Source: Kandiannan et al., 2020b].



Fig 5: Plant and rhizomes of curcuma species [Source: Kandiannan et al., 2020].


 
Potential of turmeric, production systems and agronomic practices
 
Turmeric cultivation in Fiji is small-scale and characterised by traditional agricultural practices. Farmers typically utilise limited inputs and rely on organic farming methods, such as employing farmyard manure and compost, due to the inflated cost and limited availability of synthetic fertilisers and pesticides.
       
Fiji has recovered its agricultural exports despite the uncertainties caused by the COVID-19 pandemic and its consequent effects on international trade volumes. International markets have shown a consistent demand for Fijian goods, especially in the agriculture sector. In 2020, Fiji’s agricultural exports rose compared to 2019 across many items, including Kava (Vuvale, 2020). Turmeric, Coconut Oil, Ginger and Taro (MoA,  2023). In recent years, there has been a surge in the global demand for Fijian Turmeric, which is attributed to its numerous benefits as a superfood and as a constituent in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. At present, the United States receives 97.87% of Fiji’s turmeric exports, which are valued at US$9.15 million. New Zealand receives 2.06% of the exports, which are valued at US$192,780. The remaining 3% of the exports are directed to Japan. Now there are three primary businesses in the production and marketing of turmeric: Island Magic cultivates USDA Certified Organic Turmeric on the foothills of Viti Levu and primarily exports to the United States; Ranadi Organics grows organic ginger and turmeric for Red Shoots, the award-winning immunity health tonic shots brand Daily Good; and Tavulomo Coconuts, headquartered in Vanua Levu, specialises in Virgin Coconut Oil and has recently launched cold-pressed turmeric, ginger and lime health shots (Vuvale, 2020).
       
Table 5 shows the current state of export potential of the turmeric industry in Fiji. Fiji was the 9th major exporter in the world (contributed 0.8% to world turmeric export), MoA, (2021). However, Fiji has become one of the top five exporters of turmeric in the category of fresh/chilled commodities with a trade value of $9917.10K and 2544.81kg in 2022 (World Bank, 2022).

Table 5: Top 10 exporters (countries) of Turmeric in the World. [Source: Bacolod et al., 2020].


       
Curcuma has 93 species worldwide (WFO, 2020). Its species range from South and Southeast Asia to Australia, China and the South Pacific (Skornickova et al., 2007).  India and Thailand have the most species (Velayudhan et al., 1999; Sasikumar, 2005; Sirirugsa et al., 2007; Kandiannan et al., 2020b). Sasikumar (2005) reported that various species of Curcuma vary in biologically active principles, morphology, above-ground vegetative and floral characteristics and below-ground rhizome features, as well as curcumin, oleoresin and essential oil content. The Pacific Bulbs Society (PBS, 2020) lists fifteen Curcuma species grown for leaves and flowers. Curcuma is a prospective medicine source throughout the world because of its anticancer qualities, anti-inflammatory, antirheumatic, antifibrotic, hypocholesterolemic,choleratic, insect-repellent, antibacterial,  antivenomous, antiviral, antidiabetic and antihepatotoxic. Aromatherapy and perfumery use turmeric oil. The turmeric production cycle in Fiji lasts 8-10 months, from planting rhizomes to harvesting mature ones. Planting occurs from September to October, when the rainy season begins. Most farmers underuse mechanisation in planting, weeding and harvesting, reducing productivity. In addition, poor extension services and technical skills in agricultural methods lower farm output. SPC found that Fiji’s average turmeric production is 5 to 7 tonnes per hectare, which is low compared to the potential yields of 20 tonnes per hectare possible with better techniques and planting materials (Kandiannan et al., 2020b).

Throughout the Pacific, spices are used in agricultural operations. Turmeric was initially introduced to this area (Ritsuko and Reid 2007; Kandiannan et al., 2022). The missionaries and European rulers of this region introduced a variety of spices. Kandiannan et al., (2022) discussed in their paper that ginger was introduced to Australia by the British in 1788 and subsequently carried by the Chinese during the early 19th century (Ryder, 2010). A survey conducted in pre-colonial Fiji in 1860 by the British recorded five unique spices: turmeric (Curcuma longa Linn.), Zingiber zerumbet Roscoe, Bird’s eye pepper (Capsicum frutescens Linn.), cinnamon (Cinnamomum pedatinervium Meisn) and Myristica castaneifolia A (Seemann, 1862, 1869; Kandiannan et al., 2022).
       
Turmeric is considered a wild crop in the Fiji Islands. Numerous spice crops, including vanilla and black pepper, were brought to Fiji in the 1880s; ginger was imported before 1890 (perhaps from Australia), while cardamom, nutmeg and clove were introduced around 1930, resulting in the naturalisation of some species over time (Kaiyanuyanu, 1995; Kandiannan et al., 2022). A multitude of spices, especially herbal varieties, were introduced in subsequent years and currently, approximately 40 distinct spices are observed in Fiji (Kandiannan et al., 2020a). Dr. Ronald Gatty, regarded as the “Father of the Spice Industry” in Fiji, also introduced numerous spices from various nations (Seeto, 2020). Vanilla is a significant spice in the Pacific region, brought to Tonga in 1827 (Kandiannan et al., 2022; Sisifa et al., 2019).
 
Challenges in turmeric production in Fiji
 
Frequent tropical storms, fragmented holdings, undulating topography, a high number of small and marginal farmers, Fiji’s distant position, inadequate marketing facilities and a shortage of workers are all prevalent issues in the area. This crop exhibits disorganised farming and lacks standardised production protocols. Some spices, such as cinnamon and turmeric, are obtained from natural habitats. Vinning, (1990) and Kandiannan et al., (2022) examined the marketing potential of Pacific spices, highlighting the significance of ginger, black pepper, chillies, turmeric, vanilla, cinnamon, cassia, cardamoms, mace, nutmeg and clove in that order. McGregor, (2007); Kandiannan et al., (2022) indicated that the export of spices from the Pacific is contingent upon agronomic conditions, private sector involvement, marketing and certification. Fiji’s turmeric production has great potential due to ideal weather and expanding global demand, but many obstacles stand in its way. Agronomic, environmental, socio-economic and market issues exist. Research, policy, capacity and infrastructure are needed to solve these problems. The primary turmeric production issues in Fiji are discussed below.
 
Agronomic challenges
 
Agronomic challenges in Fijian turmeric cultivation include a lack of high-quality planting material. Conventional propagation methods using rhizomes from previous harvests sometimes reduce production and quality for growers. Improved, disease-free planting materials that boost yields and resist pests and diseases are scarce. Certified nurseries and multiplication facilities are scarce, worsening this issue. Turmeric grown without soil fertility management depletes nutrients and destroys the soil. Farmers have less access to organic fertilisers and soil additives, which are essential for turmeric production. MoA, (2023) found that less than 30% of turmeric producers restore soil nutrients with organic compost or green manure, revealing a soil fertility management need.
 
Socio-economic challenges
 
Fijian turmeric farmers, especially smallholders, struggle to get loans. This limits their ability to spend on excellent planting supplies, fertilisers and pest control. Lack of collateral and high interest rates deter farmers from borrowing from official banks (MoA, 2023). Farmers are often locked in a cycle of poor productivity and revenue. Turmeric production has been less researched in Fiji; therefore, the dissemination of information and technical knowledge to turmeric farmers in Fiji is often inadequate. The extension services provided by government agencies and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are limited, leaving farmers with little or no access to updated knowledge on turmeric post-harvest handling, good agricultural practices (GAPs) and value addition. This disparity leads to suboptimal farming and low yields. Labour difficulties during peak planting and harvesting seasons make Fijian turmeric production difficult. Rural-urban migration, where younger people relocate to cities for better jobs, exacerbates this problem. Due to its laborious nature, turmeric production is difficult for smallholder farmers with minimal resources (Singh et al., 2022).
 
Infrastructural and market-related challenges
 
Fijian turmeric post-harvest treatment is poor, reducing quality and market value. Poor drying, storage and processing lead to contamination, deterioration and lower curcumin content. Over 40% of the produced turmeric is lost due to inadequate handling and storage (Prasad et al., 2023).
       
A key issue for Fijian turmeric farmers is market access. Most farmers sell their produce in local marketplaces or through intermediaries, who provide lower rates due to unorganised supply systems and markets. Effective value chains, including better transport networks, centralised collecting sites and direct marketing channels, can boost farmers’ negotiating power and profitability. Fijian turmeric has potential in overseas markets like Australia, New Zealand and the USA. However, export quality criteria and certification are difficult to achieve. Farmers must spend on training, infrastructure and certification to meet organic, GAP and phytosanitary standards (MoA, 2023).
 
Climate and environmental challenges
 
Fiji’s turmeric crop is vulnerable to storms, floods and droughts. Events like these can damage crops, lower yields and harm the soil. Climate change increases extreme weather occurrences, making farmers more vulnerable (Pacific Community, 2022). As climate change increases, Fiji will face droughts, hydrological cycle changes that cause strong floods, harsh weather, rising sea levels, saltwater intrusion and loss of livable land. Monocropping and slash-and-burn agriculture threaten Fiji’s turmeric output by causing soil erosion and land degradation (Taylor et al., 2016).
 
Fiji’s turmeric production potential unlocked: Strategies
 
The high curcumin level in turmeric, which gives it its distinctive taste and aroma, has been clinically demonstrated to combat cancer, stimulate the immune system and cleanse the gut, liver and biliary systems. Fijian enterprises are entering niche markets to capitalise on North American customer demand. The Fijian business Island Magic has formed a growers’ cooperative network in villages to get fresh turmeric. The high curcumin level of organic Fiji turmeric makes it healthy and juicing-friendly. Tavulomo Coconuts, which attended the 2020 Auckland Food Show, makes coconut water and vegan snacks from coconut meat. They began exporting ginger juice and cold-pressed turmeric to New Zealand, Australia, Germany, China and Japan. Pacific Trade Invest Australia and Beijing helped the company send a trial batch of cold-pressed turmeric ginger and lime health shots to Beijing, China. USA imported 97.87% (US$9.15 million) of Fiji’s turmeric, New Zealand 2.06% (US$192,780) and Japan 0.07% (US$6,090) (Investment Fiji, 2020).
       
Fiji’s turmeric production potential may be realised by improving agronomic methods, access to financial and technical resources, value chains and market integration. Government agencies, research institutions and corporate stakeholders must intervene strategically to overcome turmeric sector difficulties and achieve sustainable growth. Key measures to boost Fijian turmeric output are listed here.
 
Agronomic strategies
 
Improving planting material quality and availability boosts turmeric yields. Farmers can get disease-free, high-yielding turmeric from certified nurseries and tissue culture labs. Cooperation between the Fiji Ministry of Agriculture and regional agricultural research centres helps speed up a variety of developments. Tissue cultured turmeric plants yielded 25-30% more than traditional propagation methods. Organic additives, crop rotation and conservation tillage boost turmeric yields. Leguminous cover crops, green manures and compost boost soil structure, organic matter and nutrients. Terracing and agroforestry training for farmers help minimise soil erosion and improve soil health (MoA, 2023).
 
Socio-economic strategies
 
Creating financial solutions for smallholder turmeric producers can help them buy excellent inputs and technologies. Microfinance, cooperatives and agricultural development banks should give turmeric producers low-interest loans, group lending and revolving funding. Farmers can access credit, inputs and guaranteed markets through contract farming with private sector partners (Prasad et al., 2023). GAPs, post-harvest management and value addition must be taught through strong agricultural extension services. Farmer Field Schools (FFSs) and demonstration plots can help farmers adopt new practices by providing hands-on instruction. Participatory training is required to raise turmeric yields. These trainings have the potential to increase turmeric yields (FAO, 2020).
 
Infrastructural and market development strategies
 
Investment in facilities like storage, drying and processing can reduce post-harvest losses and increase turmeric quality. Farmers may make high-quality turmeric powder, oil and capsules at community-based processing centres with solar dryers and grinders. Such facilities could boost farmers’ revenue by 30-50%  (MoA, 2023).
       
Turmeric farmers’ prosperity depends on direct market links between producers and customers domestically and internationally. Cooperatives and Farmer Producer Organisations (FPOs) can improve collective bargaining and access to high-value markets. Fiji’s closeness to Australia, New Zealand and the US offers organic and sustainable turmeric export opportunities.
       
Entering premium markets requires international quality standards and certifications like organic, Fairtrade and GAPs. Farmers can comply with these criteria faster with centralised quality testing and certification facilities. Farmers should learn about certification standards and procedures in training and capacity-building programmes (Prasad et al., 2018).
 
Environmental and climate resilience strategies
 
Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) can make turmeric more resistant to adverse weather. To acclimatize to the changing climate, farmers can adapt to rainwater collection, drip irrigation and agroforestry practices. Climate-resilient cultivars, early warning systems and conservation agriculture can help turmeric growers adapt. Contour farming, mulching and low tillage can reduce soil erosion and degradation, sustaining turmeric yield. Government policies should ensure land tenure security, allowing farmers to invest in long-term sustainable practices.
 
Future directions for turmeric production
 
Future directions for turmeric production in Fiji present exciting opportunities for both sustainable growth and global competitiveness. One crucial step is the formalisation of turmeric farming through the establishment of organised cultivation practices. The sector would benefit greatly from improved agricultural methods, such as the introduction of high-quality planting materials, disease-resistant varieties and organic farming techniques. Investing in post-harvest infrastructure, such as proper drying and processing facilities, can significantly reduce product loss and enhance turmeric quality, making it more competitive in the international market. Expanding the value chain through initiatives like the production of turmeric-based health products, such as supplements and essential oils, can create higher-value products and attract premium markets. Certification programs, especially for organic and Fairtrade turmeric, will open doors to new global markets like the US, Europe and Australia, which have high demand for organic spices. Further, developing climate-resilient farming strategies, including the adoption of conservation tillage, rainwater harvesting and agroforestry, will safeguard turmeric production against the challenges posed by climate change. Overall, with strategic partnerships, research investments and infrastructure improvements, Fiji’s turmeric sector is poised for sustainable and expansive growth.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, Fiji’s turmeric production shows immense potential but faces several significant challenges. The country’s favourable agro-climatic conditions and high curcumin content in turmeric provide a strong foundation for expansion. However, production remains largely unorganised, with most turmeric being wild-harvested and smallholder farmers lacking access to quality planting materials and modern farming techniques. Agronomic challenges like poor soil management, inadequate access to organic fertilisers and a lack of disease-resistant varieties hinder productivity. Additionally, socio-economic barriers, such as limited financial resources and inadequate access to technical knowledge, further constrain the industry. Infrastructure, particularly post-harvest processing, is underdeveloped, leading to significant losses and reduced product quality. Despite these difficulties, the global demand for turmeric, especially organic and high-curcumin varieties, positions Fiji to capitalise on this trend. If addressed strategically, the turmeric sector can significantly boost rural livelihoods by providing income opportunities for smallholder farmers, while also contributing to the national economy through export growth. Investments in value addition, such as producing turmeric-based health products and improving access to international markets, could transform Fiji into a competitive player in the global turmeric industry.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors sincerely acknowledge Fiji National University for supporting this review work.
 
Disclaimers
 
The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions.
 
Informed consent
 
Not applicable.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

There are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article.

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