Antimicrobial resistance in foodborne pathogens has emerged as a significant global concern, leading to illnesses ranging from mild to life-threatening. Nearly 1.5 million annual deaths, particularly among children, are attributed to infectious diarrhoea. Major foodborne pathogens include
Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria monocytogenes (
Sharma et al., 2020;
Saeed et al., 2025), Escherichia coli (Barathiraja et al., 2015), Vibrio spp.,
Yersinia enterocolitica,
Salmonella spp. and Norwalk-like viruses
(Saeed et al., 2025). The rise of AMR complicates disease management and places a significant burden on healthcare systems. Mechanisms like enzymatic modification of antibiotics, biofilm formation and genetic mutations enable pathogens to evade treatments. Resistance is further amplified by environmental factors such as pollution and misuse of antibiotics
(Langford et al., 2023).
The emerging anti-microbial resistant strains of food-borne pathogens include the species of Methicillin-resistant
Staphylococcus aureus,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Escolanoa et al., 2019), Salmonella spp.,
Salmonella enteritidis,
Clostridium difficle and
Listeria monocytogenes,
Campylobacter jejuni,
Shigella sonnei,
Yersinia enterocolitica,
Escherichia coli 0157:H7,
Helicobacter pylori,
Shigella dysenteriae and
Shigella flexneri (
Umu et al., 2019). The antimicrobial resistance of these pathogens may spread from food producing plants and animals to humans
(Oniciuc et al., 2019) posing significant threats to public health and food security.
Bacteriocins are antimicrobial peptides with targeted activity against specific bacteria. They are effective at low concentrations
(Soltani et al., 2022) and demonstrate both narrow- and broad-spectrum activity. Bacteriocins selectively target and inhibit pathogenic bacteria, minimizing the development of resistance and preserving beneficial microbiota. Bacteriocins recognize pathogens
via quorum sensing, a genetic regulation system that ensures high specificity (
García-Curiel et al., 2021). Their GRAS designation makes them safe for human consumption and suitable for food safety applications
(Ricci et al., 2017).
Different articles on antimicrobial resistance and its possible solutions were reviewed. The critical analysis was done at Parul University, Vadodra and GITAM Deemed to be University, Hyderabad from March 2024 to April 2025.
Classification of bacteriocins
Bacteriocins are secondary metabolites of several bacterial genera. All strains are not capable of their production as it is an energy and nutrient demanding process (
García-Curiel et al., 2021). Bacteriocins can be classified based on their microbial source as Gram positive, Gram negative, archaeal bacteriocins, ribosomal synthesis and post-translation modification of peptides (RiPP nomenclature)
(Zimina et al., 2020). The detailed classification of these bacteriocins is shown in the Table 1 and Table 2.
Bacteriocin biosynthesis
Bacteriocins are released as secondary metabolites during microbial fermentation process. The bacteriocin production and release is based on signal transduction systems through a general secretory pathway (GSP) that helps in regulation and secretion of peptides and proteins. There are certain genes that encode the bacteriocin biosynthesis process within the microbe including structural genes, genes encoding secretory accessory proteins, modification genes, regulatory genes and immunity genes. These genes are organised on microbial DNA as operons. The structural genes are located on a leader sequence- MDKLSKFESLSDANLSTIVG. It is a signal peptide consisting of Sec gene that encodes two structural genes- welY (made up of 42 amino acids) and welM (made up of 43 amino acids). These genes encode pre-pro bacteriocin (premature form of bacteriocin), having N-terminal. The two conserved glycans are present at C-terminus that process the leader sequence and helps in the release of mature bacteriocin. The genes that encode secretory accessory protein helps in processing, transport and secretion of pre-probacteriocin. Modification genes- ComA is ATP binding while ComB encodes permease enzyme that mainly helps in post-translational modification of probacteriocin. The regulatory genes are located on ribososme binding site (RBS) that consist of cellobiose- specific IIC component. The genes mainly encode the regulation of bacteriocin biosynthesis. The immunity gene- Abi gene (made up of 51-154 amino acids) is located on CAAX motif. The gene encodes the protection to bacteriocin producing strain
(Todorov et al., 2019) (Fig 1).
Bacteriocins as potent proteins in preventing antimicrobial resistance
The successful bacteriocins that demonstrate their potential in preventing antimicrobial resistance in food safety. Below are the details on notable examples
(Woo et al., 2021).
AS-48
The circular bacteriocin (Class Ib)-enterocin AS-48 is low toxic and more potent bacteriocin. AS-48 is a 70- amino acid peptide that is produced by different strains of
Enterococcus spp.
Nisin
The commercially available bacteriocin nisin is a class-Ia lantibiotic produced by the strains of Lactococcus and Streptococcus. It is a 34 amino acid bacteriocin, made by post-translational modification of lanthionine and dehy-droamino acids.
Bac-IB45
A bacteriocin Bac-IB45, class IIa is a highly thermostable, pH stable and broad spectrum bacteriocin isolated from
Lactobacillus plantarum KIBGE-IB45 strain. The bacteriocin has bactericidal mode of action that inhibits the complete growth of the bacteria.
The bacteriocins AS-48, nisin and Bac-IB45 inhibit the cell wall biosynthesis by creating pores within the membranes of the bacterial cell, therefore increases the permeability of cytoplasmic membrane, thereby releasing the ions and ATP from the bacterial cell and removing the Lipid II (peptidoglycan precursor as docking molecule) from its main location
(Woo et al., 2021) (Fig 2, Table 3). This leads to complete cell inactivation of the pathogens.
ST110LD
Bacteriocin produced by
Leuconostoc citreum strain ST
110LD is a class IIa bacteriocin. This bacteriocin mainly binds to lipid II present on the membrane of the
Listeria spp. This high specificity of the bacteriocin for the
Listeria spp. may be a specific marker or involvement of receptors as a point of contact between bacteriocin and
Listeria spp. (Table 3).
Modified nisin
The lantibiotic nisin was modified by fusion of peptides (T16 m
2). T1 is the tail in the structure consisting of sequence DKPRPYLPRPRPV (Fig 3). It is an anti-microbial peptide that is designed based on statistical analysis to improve the anti-microbial action of nisin against Gram negative antimicrobial resistant food borne pathogens (Table 3)
(Li et al., 2023).
Plantaricin A (PlnA)
The species of
Lactiplantibacillus plantarum produces a cationic bacteriocin called Plantaricin A (PlnA)
(Luther et al., 2019; Meng et al., 2021) (Fig 2). The bacteriocin PlnA with a concentration of 25 µg/ml has shown to alter the cellular morphology of multi-drug-resistant strain of food borne pathogen
Escherichia coli that led to an increase in the outer membrane permeability of
E. coli at the concentration of 6.25 µg/ml (Table 3)
(Meng et al., 2022).
Regulatory and safety considerations for application of bacteriocins as antimicrobials
Regulatory authorities grant GRAS status to substances deemed safe based on extensive scientific evidence or historical use. For instance, nisin has GRAS approval and is widely applied in food preservation and therapeutics, setting a benchmark for other bacteriocins. The Codex Alimentarius provides internationally recognized guidelines for bacteriocin usage in food. It outlines permissible limits, such as the approved nisin levels (12.5-25 mg/kg) based on the food matrix and application (
EFSA, 2021).
Other challenges
The challenges involved for bacteriocin production include -Scaling up requires cost-effective fermentation techniques. Bacteriocins often require encapsulation or specific delivery systems to remain stable and active during food processing and storage. Ensuring compatibility with various food matrices without altering sensory properties presents another significant obstacle. Furthermore, misconceptions about microbial-derived products may hinder consumer acceptance
(Lopetuso et al., 2019; Vermeulen et al., 2019).
