Morphological studies were conducted on the skull of a hippopotamus brought to the Veterinary college for postmortem examination. &nbsp;Skull of the hippopotamus was huge and notable for its little brain case and high supra-orbital ridges. The skull had a larger splanchnocranium than the neurocranium. &nbsp;From the dorsal view, the skull had a watch glass appearance because of its narrow middle portion (at the region of maxillae) and wide caudal and rostral portions. &nbsp;Maxilla showed a large Eminenta canina and two infraorbital foramina leading to two separate infraorbital canals. The premaxilla lodged two huge incisors and just above the central incisor, there was a large rough eminence for the elevated nostrils. Three to four large rounded lacrimal bullae were seen on the floor of the bony orbit. &nbsp;Frontal bone presented a strongly convex smooth supra-orbital ridge that formed upper margin of the orbit which projected from the surface of the skull. &nbsp;The median sagittal crest was very high that diverged to accommodate the concave forehead in front. Temporal fossa was very extensive. &nbsp;Caudal surface of the skull showed a concave nuchal surface and the external occipital protuberance was in the form of a crest. The paramastoid process and external auditory process were very short. Bulla tympanica was conical with a pyramidal muscular process. &nbsp;Anatomical peculiarities of the skull and their functional significance are discussed.

Gross anatomy of the skull of hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius)

<div>Background: There is scanty information on the skull morphology of Indian mithun. Therefore, the present study has been designed to provide information on the morphology of the skull of Indian mithun.&nbsp; 
 
Method: The study was conducted on the skull bones of twelve (n=12) adult Indian mithun of either sex (n=6, male and n=6, female). The head region samples of naturally died mithun were collected from different parts of the Mizoram and Nagaland states of India from April, 2019 to March, 2020.&nbsp; 
 
Result: The skull of mithun was roughly triangular in shape from the dorsal side. The cranial and facial bones were the major components of the skull, with a total of thirty-two bones. There were three single and four paired cranial bones with a total of eleven bones. There was one single and the rest were paired facial bones with a total of twenty-one bones. The cranial bones were occipital, parietal, interparietal, sphenoid, ethmoid, frontal and temporal. The facial bones were maxilla, premaxilla (incisive), palatine, pterygoid, nasal, lacrimal, zygomatic (malar), vomer, turbinate, mandible and hyoid. The present morphological studies on the skull of mithun can be useful to the wildlife professionals and zoo veterinarians for the determination of sex of this animal and differentiation from other domestic and wild animals for solving veterolegal cases.</div>

Morphological Studies on the Skull Bones of Indian Mithun (Bos frontalis)

<div style="text-align: justify;">Background: There is scanty information on the morphometry of the skull of Indian mithun; therefore, the present study was designed to provide morphometric data of the skull of Indian mithun.&nbsp; Methods: The study was conducted on the skull bones of twelve (n=12) adult Indian mithun of either sex (n=6, male and n=6, female). The head region samples of naturally died mithun were collected from different parts of the Mizoram and Nagaland states of India from September, 2019 to March, 2020. In the present study, altogether, a total of forty-five parameters were taken in the skull bones of males and females of Indian mithun.&nbsp; Result: The biometrical observations on the different parameters of the skull of Indian mithun were found to be significantly (P&lt;0.01, P&lt;0.05) higher in the males than females. The measurements demonstrated that the skull of the mithun was elongated and dolichocephalic as per the value of the skull index. The skull index/ cephalic index was 48.76&plusmn;0.03 in males and 48.71&plusmn;0.02 in females of the mithun. The length, width of the skull was 44.52&plusmn;0.02, 44.41&plusmn;0.02 in males and 21.62&plusmn;0.04, 21.57&plusmn;0.05 in females of mithun, respectively. The orbital margin was circular and complete in mithun. The cranial cavity of mithun was oval in outline with a capacity of 530.00&plusmn;0.27 cm3 in males and 523.00&plusmn;0.31 cm3 in females. The foramen magnum was large, roughly oval with a foramen index as 96.93&plusmn;0.06 in males and 97.19&plusmn;0.04 in females. The present morphometrical studies on the skull of mithun can be useful to the wildlife professionals and zoo veterinarians for the determination of sex of this animal and distinguish from other domestic and wild animals for solving veterolegal cases.</div>

<div style="text-align: justify;">Sex Wise Morphometrical Studies on the Skull Bones of Indian Mithun (Bos frontalis)</div>

<div>Background: The Blue bull (Boselaphus tragocamelus) is regarded as one of the biggest antelopes in Asia and safeguarded beneath the IUCN since 2003 and under safeguard of &lsquo;Schedule III&rsquo; of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. This study focused on the detailed gross morphometrical study of mid thoracic ribs of Blue Bull (Boselaphus tragocamelus). 
 
Methods: The present study was carried out on the skull of six specimens of adult Blue bull (Boselaphus tragocamelus) of either sex. The measurements of various parameters of skull bones were taken with the help of weighing machine, thread, scale and digital Vernier&rsquo;s calliper.&nbsp; 
 
Result: The average length of skull was found to be 40.9&plusmn;1.08 cm in female, which was significantly less (P&lt;0.05) than that of males, where it was recorded as 49.5&plusmn;097 cm. Similarly, the average facial length was found to be 16.6&plusmn;0.20 cm in female, which was significantly less (P&lt;0.05) than that of males, where it was recorded as 22.0&plusmn;0.17 cm. The average left cranio-caudal length of tympanic bulla was found to be 4.1&plusmn;0.15 cm in female, which was significantly less (P&lt;0.05) than that of males, where it was recorded as 4.5&plusmn;0.19 cm. The average length of left zygomatic process of squamous temporal bone was found to be 5.7&plusmn;0.11 cm in female, which was significantly less (P&lt;0.05) than that of males, where it was recorded as 7.1&plusmn;0.08 cm. The average distance between the last incisor and first premolar teeth was found to be 6.3&plusmn;0.12 cm in female, which was significantly less (P&lt;0.05) than that of males, where it was recorded as 8.2&plusmn;0.17 cm.</div>

​Morphometrical Studies on Skull Bones of Adult Blue Bull (Boselaphus tragocamelus)

<div>The previously reported information on the morphology of crested serpent eagle and brown wood owl skeleton is meager as compared to the fowl, thus, the present study was designed to provide the morphological features of the skull of both species. The specimens were procured from four crested serpent eagle and brown wood owls, brought from the Zoological Park, Aizawl for the post mortem examination conducted at the Department of Veterinary Pathology, College of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Aizawl, Mizoram. After the post-mortem examination, the collected specimens were macerated by the standard maceration technique and radiographs were taken at the Mizoram Health Centre, Aizawl. The skull of both the species consisted of neurocranium and viscerocranium which were separated by two large orbital cavities. The neurocranium was composed of single (occipital, sphenoid, ethmoidal) and paired (temporal, parietal and frontal) bones in both the species. The viscerocranium consisted of single bones (mandible, vomer and hyoid) and paired (quadrate, lacrimal, nasal, premaxilla, maxilla, zygomatic, palatine and pterygoid) bones. The skull of both the species was dolichocephalic as per the cephalic index, which was 52.63&plusmn;0.04 and 68.56&plusmn;0.03 in crested serpent eagle and brown wood owl, respectively. The results showed that there were variations in shape and components of crested serpent eagle and brown wood owl skull bones in comparison with other birds.</div>

<div>Morphometric and Radiographic Characteristics of the Skull in Crested Serpent Eagle (Spilornis cheela) and Brown Wood Owl (Strix leptogrammica)</div>

<div>Background: The Blue bull (Boselaphus tragocamelus) is one of the biggest antelopes in Asia and is widely distributed in both the forests and adjoining villages with enough green grass. 
 
Methods: The present study was carried out on the orbital cavity and foramina of skull of six specimens of adult Blue bull (Boselaphus tragocamelus) of either sex. The biometrical parameters were measured by scale, graduated tape and digital Vernier&rsquo;s caliper. 
 
Result: The average left cranio-caudal orbital diameter was found to be 5.7&plusmn;0.11 cm in female, which was significantly less (p&lt;0.05) than that of males, where it was recorded as 5.3&plusmn;0.08 cm. Similarly, the average left orbital depth was found to be 5.7&plusmn;0.08 cm in female, which was significantly less (p&lt;0.05) than that of males, where it was recorded as 5.3&plusmn;0.06 cm. The average length of left orbital process of frontal bone was found to be 5.1&plusmn;0.05 cm in female, which was significantly less (p&lt;0.05) than that of males, where it was recorded as 5.3&plusmn;0.07 cm. The average diameter of left supraorbital foramen was found to be 0.31&plusmn;0.001 cm in female, which was significantly less (p&lt;0.05) than that of males, where it was recorded as 0.7&plusmn;0.003 cm. Similarly, the average maximum distance between two cranial palatine foramina was found to be 1.8&plusmn;0.05 cm in female, which was significantly less (p&lt;0.05) than that of males, where it was recorded as 3.3&plusmn;0.12 cm.&nbsp; 
 
Conclusion: Most of the biometrical observations on different parameters of orbital cavity and different foramina of skull of Blue bull were having significantly (p&lt;0.05) more values in males than females. The present gross and biometrical studies would be useful to the wild life professionals for determination of sex of this animal and solving vetero-legal cases related with this species.</div>

Sex Wise Morphometrical Studies on Orbital Cavity and Foramina of Skull of Adult Blue Bull (Boselaphus tragocamelus)

Background: Madhya Pradesh is rich in biodiversity having diversified flora and fauna. But now a days, apart from various threat like loss of habitat poisoning, accident, disease facing wildlife today and poaching remain one of the important causes for fauna declination. poaching remains one of important cause for fauna declination. Poaching of wild animals particularly chital and sambar deer is more for the meat, ornamental and trophy purposes. In forensic laboratory where there is lack of molecular facilities, comparative gross morphological study plays an important role in solving wildlife crime cases. skull is a best material to compare the closely relative species. hence, the study was conducted on comparative gross morphology of 4 male chital and sambar deer skull.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: The study was conducted 4 male adult skulls each of chital and sambar deer. The skulls were de-skinned and kept under maceration for a period of one month. The gross morphological differentiating features of dorsal surface, lateral surface, basal surface and nuchal surface were observed and recorded with the help of digital camera. 
 
Result: In this study, unique differentiating features were sufficient to distinguish among the skull of male chital and sambar. The facial tuberosity was present caudal to infraorbital foramen, dorsal to the superior third premolar tooth in chital deer, whereas; it was present dorsally the superior first molar tooth in sambar deer. Rostral extremities of nasal bones in skull of male chital deer were notched; however, these were blunt and without notch in the skull of male sambar deer. Incisive (Premaxilla) bone was directed upward in chital deer; whereas, it was directed caudally in case of sambar deer. The present comparative study will provide reliable information for identification of these closely related species specially needed for wildlife forensic cases.

Comparative Gross Architectural Studies on the Skull of Male Chital Deer (Axis axis) and Sambar Deer (Rusa unicolor) as an Aid in Wildlife Forensics

Background: This study, conducted on a sample of 60 bones, provides an in-depth analysis of the main characteristics of dromedary skulls, their variability and the correlations between their various parts. These data have made it possible to isolate measurements that could provide a general overview in camel craniometry. This area lacks research and this work, by focusing on sexual dimorphism, which is an important diagnostic factor, aims to deepen the understanding of the Targui population in the Ouargla region of Algeria. 
 
Methods: This study comprising a total of 30 males and 30 females Targui, organized into 4 groups: 15 young adult males (aged 5 to 9 years), 15 adult males (over 10 years), 15 young adult females (aged 5 to 9 years) and 15 adult females (over 10 years). The skulls are collected after slaughter. Each cranium was weighed and then measured using a caliper (15 linear measurements: 7 length measurements, 6 width measurements, 2 skull height measurements). The data underwent univariate, bivariate and multivariate statistical analysis. 
 
Results: For each measured variable, males are larger than females. The lateral width of the neurocranium CL5 shows the highest level of sexual dimorphism with an index close to 55%, followed by weight, which reaches 28.74%. This dimorphism is clear in the skull: males not only have larger bones but also longer ones, as is the case with cattle. This is a significant difference compared to other ruminants such as sheep or goats, where bone length is not a dimorphic parameter.

Osteo-morphometric Approach to the Heads of Dromedaries (Camelus dromedarius, L, 1758): Case of the Algerian Targui Population

<div>Background: Teaching veterinary osteology and arthrology has been performed with free bones collected from various animals after processing and preserving them for long duration. The profession of teaching Anatomy to undergraduate and postgraduate students in veterinary colleges not only requires the knowledge on Veterinary Gross Anatomy but also the methods of preparation of specimen for laboratory use. This article explains the methods and steps in preparation of coloured skulls, bones of forelimb, hindlimb, rib cage, digits and whole mounted skeletons, to be used in the anatomy laboratory to increase the efficiency of both teaching and learning.&nbsp; 
 
&nbsp;</div>

<div>Methods: A carcass of adult horse donated by a farmer was utilized for making complete coloured skeleton. The bones were collected from the carcass by natural maceration technique followed by cleaning with mild chemicals. The metallic paints and commonly available tools were used for colouring and mounting of horse skeleton. The parts of bones viz. process, fossa, articular area, foramen, the origin and insertion of various muscles were prepared with colours and labels on the surfaces of bones for teaching and museum purpose. The sequential step by step procedure for skeleton preparation in quickest possible time was standardized and explained using various tools. 
 
&nbsp;</div>

<div>Result: The natural maceration in open water tank was found to be most effective way of maceration of carcasses for collection of bones with their normal colour. The bones were processed mainly with washing soap powder and calcium carbonate followed by drying in natural sunlight which increased the brightness of the bone without any damage to the structure. The coloured skulls, bones of forelimb, hindlimb, rib cage, digits and whole mounted skeletons were prepared with available tools and chemical as this work consumes less time and cost and increases the students&rsquo; learning efficiency, which will also be an asset and center of attraction for any Institution.</div>

Tools and Techniques in Preparation of Coloured Bones and Skeletons for Effective Teaching, Learning and Museums

Background: Tupaia belangeri is increasingly recognized as an essential animal model in neuroscience, metabolic disorders and emerging infectious diseases due to its close phylogenetic relationship to primates and its small body size. Phenotypic traits are crucial for studying biological systems. Tree shrews are widely used in environmental adaptation research due to their genetic diversity and phenotypic polymorphism. The measurement of its physical indicators and skull provides a new perspective for exploring the adaptive characteristics of different tree shrew populations. Establishing population-specific morphometric reference values is therefore essential for standardizing veterinary dosing and ensuring translational reliability when tree shrews are used as models for metabolic, neurodegenerative, or emerging infectious diseases. 
 
Methods: To elucidate the phenotypic diversity of the Tree shrew (Tupaia belangeri) and its relationship with environmental factors, the present study measured the body shape and skull indicators of 134 individuals across 12 regions. 
 
Result: The results showed that there had significant phenotypic differences between different geographic populations, with inter population variation significantly greater than intra population variation, indicating that differentiation mainly occurs between populations. Especially Daxin population (T. b. tonquinia) and the Hainan population (T. b. modesta) had larger body mass and length, whereas the Kunming population (T. b. chinensis) was relatively smaller. Environmental factor analysis revealed significant correlations between latitude, altitude, annual average temperature, atmospheric pressure and precipitation with the morphological traits of tree shrews, with altitude had the most significant impact on phenotypic differences. The clustering and principal component analysis results also confirmed the geographical differentiation of the tree shrew in morphological studies. The research findings emphasized the role of environmental factors in shaping the phenotypic diversity of the tree shrew and provide important insights into the evolution and ecological adaptation of this species, which was of great significance for biodiversity conservation and ecosystem management. 
&nbsp;