This review article provides a comprehensive overview of Holstein Friesian dairy cattle&rsquo;s physiological adaptation in Balochistan, a harsh environment that poses significant challenges to animal production. The article reviews various physiological responses and adaptations of Holstein Friesian dairy cattle to thermal stress and water scarcity, which are two of the most significant challenges the animals face in this region. It also highlights several key physiological responses that occur in Holstein Friesian dairy cattle when exposed to thermal stress, such as increased respiratory rate, pulse rateand rectal temperature. Additionally, milk production, somatic cell count (SCC), blood metabolitesand heart rate were identified as valuable indicators for assessing the animal&rsquo;s thermoregulatory mechanisms and detecting the impact of thermal stress. Moreover, adaptations of the sweat gland characteristics, metabolism processes and reduced metabolic requirements were also discussed. This review also highlighted the effect of altitude, hair coatand breed differences on the animals&rsquo; physiological adaptation. The authors stressed the significance of understanding the animals&rsquo; physiological responses to harsh environmental conditions and the importance of measuring these responses accurately in enhancing the animal&rsquo;s productivity and welfare. This review concludes with recommendations for improving the adaptability and performance of Holstein Friesian dairy cattle in Balochistan. Suggestions include implementing crossbreeding programs with indigenous breeds, improving management practices, utilizing physiological parameters to monitor animal health and conducting further research to identify genetic variations that improve animal adaptability. The authors emphasize the significance of these recommendations to increase farmers&rsquo; income, enhance food securityand contribute to the socio-economic development of the region. In conclusion, this review article provides valuable insights into Holstein Friesian dairy cattle&rsquo;s physiological adaptation in Balochistan and can be useful for stakeholders in the dairy industry, policymakersand researchers concerned with improving the sustainability and profitability of animal agriculture in harsh environments.

Holstein Friesian Dairy Cattle Physiological Adaptation in Balochistan: A Review

High altitude environments pose unique challenges for both humans and animals, necessitating a range of adaptations for survival. Livestock species indigenous to mountainous regions, such as Yaks, Tibetan sheep, Ladakhi cattle and Himalayan goats, have evolved specialized physiological, morphological and biochemical mechanisms to cope with extreme conditions like hypobaric hypoxia, temperature fluctuations and limited forage availability. These adaptations are crucial for their survival and the livelihoods of mountain communities that depend on them for resources like milk, meat and wool. Omic studies have revolutionized our understanding of high altitude adaptation in livestock. Genomic analyses have revealed genetic signatures of adaptation, such as higher heterozygosity rates in Yaks and positive selection of genes related to energy metabolism and hypoxia response. Transcriptomics studies have uncovered gene expression patterns and pathways underlying high-altitude responses, including those related to oxygen transport, immune function and stress tolerance in sheep and goats, comparative RNA molecule analyses have identified key regulators of hypoxia adaptation and cellular metabolism. Skin transcriptomics studies have highlighted genes involved in coat color, UV protection and fiber quality adaptations. Overall, leveraging omics methods such as genomics, transcriptomics and comparative analyses provides valuable insights into the genetic, molecular and physiological basis of high altitude adaptation in livestock. These findings contribute to the development of targeted breeding strategies and sustainable management practices essential for livestock resilience and food security in mountainous regions amidst climate change challenges. 
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High Altitude Adaptation in Livestock and Poultry: Exploring Morphological, Physiological, Biochemical and Omic Insights: A Review

Background: Drought is a critical abiotic stress that affects the productivity, growth and yield of crops. The current study was evaluated to screen six widely grown tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) genotypes viz, Shivam, Siri, Bhagyashree, Arka Samrat, Arka Rakshak, Arka Apeksha, in the south part of India to drought stress. 
&nbsp; 
Methods: The studies were performed mostly on leaves in pot experiments using a complete randomized arrangement (CRD), polybags were divided into two sets for each genotype-one set of polybags consist of four bags were given drought treatment by withholding irrigation for 10 days which includes sampling days and another set of polybags consisting of four bags were routinely watered considered as a control for preceding sampling days. The set standard protocols were used for each experiment conducted. 
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Result: This studies on morpho-physiology showed a significant reduction along with oxidative damage in all genotypes including increase in malonaldehyde content (MDA content) and hydrogen Peroxide and superoxide radical localization that led to increase in antioxidative activity such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and ascorbate peroxidase (APX), as well as their isozymes. Photosynthetic parameters such as the net photosynthesis rate, stomatal conductance and Fv/Fm and other related measurements drastically decreased in drought-stressed plants. Moreover, stomatal structure showed flaccid guard cells and the closure of the stomata in all genotypes of tomatoes, but with fewer variations in &lsquo;Arka Samrat&rsquo; and &lsquo;Shivam&rsquo;. 
&nbsp;

Exploring Adaptative and Susceptible Mechanism in Selected Tomato Genotypes Employing Physiological Modulations and Antioxidative Pathways under Drought Stress

The concept of water movement across cell membranes eventually lead to identification of water channels, known as &lsquo;Aquaporins&rsquo;. The transport function exerted by aquaporins (AQPs) is carried out efficiently by 13 distinct isoforms of AQPs in mammals. AQPs help in regulation of physiological functions of various organ systems and have a functional role in stress associated with various pathological conditions. This review summarises the involvement of AQPs in transport of ROS and oxidative stress regulation in various organ systems. AQP1, AQP4, AQP7 and AQP9 are the major AQPs in the cardiac tissues of various animals, playing vital role in the patho-physiology of congestive heart failure, myocardial oedema, myocardial ischemia and polymicrobial sepsis. In digestive system, AQP1, AQP3, AQP4, AQP7, AQP8, AQP10 and AQP11 are localised in gastro-intestinal tract, modulating patho-physiology of pseudomembranous colitis, bile induced diarrhoea, irritable bowel syndrome and intestinal ulcers. AQPs in enteric tissues are engaged in metabolism of H2O2, providing a protective mechanism against oxidative stress. AQP1, AQP2, AQP3, AQP4 and AQP11 are major renal AQPs involved in ureteral obstruction, nephrogenic diabetes insipidus and kidney injury. In respiratory system, AQP1, AQP2, AQP4 and AQP5 are expressed in various pathological circumstances like lung injury and pulmonary inflammation due to oxidative stress. Thus, the evidences regarding the role of AQPs in oxidative stress offer a foundation for comprehending the adaptive mechanisms to oxidative injury at cellular level, which helps in strategizing breeding programmes and serves as biomarkers for efficient diagnosis.

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The Role of Aquaporin in Stress Physiology: A Review

Background: Climate change increasingly threatens global ecosystems, with livestock in developing countries like India being particularly vulnerable. Variations in temperature and humidity throughout the seasons significantly affect animal health, adaptability and productivity. Black Bengal goats, an important genetic resource in Bihar, are noted for their resilience and economic value. Understanding their physiological and biochemical responses to seasonal stress is crucial for creating effective management strategies. 
 
Methods: This study investigated the seasonal adaptability of Black Bengal goats by evaluating various physiological and biochemical parameters across four distinct seasons: summer, monsoon, post-monsoon and winter. Twenty healthy female goats were chosen and blood samples were collected in each season. The temperature-humidity index (THI) was calculated to assess heat stress conditions. Key biomarkers analyzed included biochemical (blood urea nitrogen, albumin, globulin, glucose), hormonal (cortisol, TSH, T3, T4), mineral and oxidative stress markers (glutathione, malondialdehyde [MDA], catalase, total antioxidant capacity [TAC] and superoxide dismutase [SOD]). 
 
Result: The THI values showed severe heat stress during the summer and monsoon seasons (THI &gt; 85), moderate stress in the post-monsoon period (THI 78) and comfortable conditions in winter (THI 63). Significant seasonal variations were observed in biochemical parameters, with the most notable changes occurring in summer. Cortisol levels were higher during summer and monsoon, indicating heat-induced stress, while thyroid hormones (TSH, T3 and T4) were elevated in winter and post-monsoon, suggesting thermoregulatory adaptations. Oxidative stress markers also varied significantly, with increased oxidative damage and antioxidant enzyme activity during hotter seasons. These findings emphasize the impact of seasonal stress on goat physiology and highlight the need for season-specific strategies to improve resilience and productivity. 
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Seasonal Adaptability of Black Bengal Goats: A Four-season Study of Serum Biochemical, Mineral, Hormonal and Oxidative Stress Biomarkers

<div>Background: Growing demand for improving milk production and rising temperatures due to global warming has increased the thermal load on dairy animals. Physiological parameters such as respiration rate and body temperature mainly determine the adaptability of animals to climate stress. During genetic adaptation, Bos indicus cattle have acquired thermo tolerant genes and when exposed to heat stress conditions, the Bos indicus cattle have lower respiration rates and rectal temperatures than Bos taurus animals. The present study was aimed to study the effect of seasons on the physiological responses in Sahiwal and crossbred cows. 
 
Methods: A total of 50 crossbred cows maintained at Military dairy Farm, Secunderabad and 50 Sahiwal cows maintained at Livestock Farm Complex, College of Veterinary Science, Rajendranagar, PVNRTVU were utilized for the present investigation. The study was conducted during summer (THI = 83.71&plusmn;0.01), rainy (THI = 71.37&plusmn;0.01) and winter (THI = 66.69&plusmn;0.01) seasons. Changes in respiration rate (RR), rectal temperature (RT) and heat tolerance coefficient (HTC) were observed in different seasons in Sahiwal and crossbred cows. 
 
Result: RR (breaths/ min) in Sahiwal cows during summer, rainy and winter were 28.56&plusmn;0.38, 23.38&plusmn;0.38 and 20.54&plusmn;0.38 respectively whereas RR (breaths/ min) in crossbred cows were 44.58&plusmn;0.38, 25.94&plusmn;0.38 and 21.90&plusmn;0.38 respectively. In Sahiwal cows RT (&deg;C) during summer, rainy and winter were 38.52&plusmn;0.03, 38.23&plusmn;0.03 and 38.13&plusmn;0.03 respectively whereas RT (&deg;C) in crossbred cows were 39.22&plusmn;0.02, 38.72&plusmn;0.03 and 37.80&plusmn;0.03 respectively. The magnitude of increase in RR, RT and HTC were found to be higher during summer compared to other seasons in both Sahiwal and crossbred cows. It was observed that Sahiwal cows are less sensitive to heat stress and are better able to regulate their body temperature than crossbred cows when environmental temperature increases during summer. The HTC values were lower in Sahiwal cows in all the seasons studied indicating better thermo tolerance when compared to the crossbred cows.</div>

Effect of Seasons on Physiological Responses in Sahiwal and Crossbred Cows

<div style="text-align: justify;">It is reported sporadically in different countries of the world including India that climate change has adverse effect on livestock productivity, particularly on milk production and growth which is reflected in meat production indirectly. Climate Change poses formidable challenge to the development of livestock sector in India. The rise in temperature between 2 to 3 &deg;C over the entire country together with increased humidity resulting from climate change is likely to aggravate the heat stress in dairy animals resulting in reduced growth and milk production. Quantification of these potential impacts of climate on livestock production allows producers to gain a better understanding of the magnitude of the changes in production levels and potential indicators of livestock response, on which managemental actions depend. Economic losses resulting from temperature-induced reductions in production may justify adaptation and mitigation of adverse impact of climate change on animal. So in this paper impact of climate change on feed intake, production, reproduction, physiology, disease occurrence in livestock, poultry etc were discussed. Moreover different adaptive and mitigation measures were discussed to reduce adverse negative effect of climate change for sustainable livestock production. &nbsp;</div>

Impact of climate change (heat stress) on livestock: adaptation and mitigation strategies for sustainable production

Background: Saline-alkali soil seriously restricts plant growth. Caucasian clover (Trifolium ambiguum Bieb.) is a high-quality leguminous forage with strong adaptability and stress resistance. However, current research on Caucasian clover under saline-alkali stress remains limited. The purpose of this study is to use NaHCO3 solution to carry out alkali stress on Caucasian clover plantsand to understand the changes of plant growth and physiological characteristics under stress, which is of great significance for its popularization and cultivation in alkaline soil. 
 
Methods: To study the effects of alkaline stress on the growth and physiological characteristics of Caucasian clover, plants were subjected to varying concentrations (0, 50, 100, 150, 200 mmol/L) of NaHCO3 in pot experiments. Post-stress, parameters such as dry weight, root-to-shoot ratio, main root length, chlorophyll, malondialdehyde (MDA) contentand the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD) and catalase (CAT) were measured. 
 
Result: This study demonstrated that alkaline stress significantly affected the growth and physiological characteristics of Caucasian clover. With increasing alkaline stress, the aboveground and underground dry weights, as well as the main root length, decreased significantly. Photosynthesis was inhibited, with chlorophyll content increasing under low alkaline stress but decreasing sharply at higher concentrations. The activities of antioxidant enzymes (SOD, POD, CAT) increased significantly under low stress but gradually decreased under higher stress levels. Meanwhile, MDA content increased significantly under high alkaline stress. Correlation analysis showed a strong positive correlation between SOD activity and CAT activity, as well as between aboveground dry weight and main root length (P&lt;0.01), while chlorophyll content was negatively correlated with MDA content (P&lt;0.05).

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Effects of Alkaline Stress on the Growth and Physiological Characteristics of Caucasian Clover

<div>Though breeding for drought resistance is complicated due to the many processes involved and their interaction with the environment, availability of precise, cheap and easy to apply selection tool is critical. The present study quantified the response of potato genotypes to drought and identified potential morpho-physiological traits that are useful for selection of drought tolerant genotypes. The study assessed sixty genotypes under two irrigation regimes: fully watered non-stress and terminal drought, where the irrigation water supply to the crop was withheld after 50 % flowering to induce post-flowering stress. Measurements for various morpho-physiological, yield and quality related traits were taken following the potato crop trait ontology. The post-flowering stress induced in this study caused a tuber yield reduction of 33.13% compared with the non-stressed treatment. The genotypes responded differently in tuber yielding potential to the drought. This differential tuber yield response to drought was associated with up and downward regulation of multiple traits related to drought adaptation in potatoes. Drought caused downward regulation on trait responses such as harvest index, leaf area and specific leaf area. Plant height, aboveground biomass and relative water content of leaf contributed negatively for tuber yield under stressed condition. Therefore, the selection attributes identified from this study could help the potato breeding program in the country to develop climate resilient potato varieties.</div>

<div>Morpho-Physiological Traits of Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) for Post-Flowering Drought Resistance</div>

Dromedaries have been evolved a remarkable array of adaptations that enable them to live in harsh desert environments. These adaptations are evident in their body systems, which are specifically designed to conserve water, regulate temperature and withstand extreme conditions. The unique characteristics of camel body systems were described to withstand extreme environmental conditions. Furthermore, growth and reproductive performances in addition to milk and urine secretion and unique characters under harsh condition were presented. Therefore, the articles concerning unique characteristics of camel body systems resulting in adaptation to harsh condition in addition to growth, reproduction, milk and urine secretion were used for writing the manuscript and they were collected from google scholar, ScienceDirect, PubMed databases. The results indicated that camel body systems have unique features indicated in anatomical, physiological and behavioral adaptation that enable them to survive in harsh environmental conditions. The camel&rsquo;s respiratory system has several adaptations including long and convoluted nasal passages, a large lung surface area and low respiration rate to conserve water. Lifespan of camel RBCs lasts 90-150 days and they are oval-shaped with special plasma membrane characters resulted in high tolerance to osmotic stress and efficient oxygen transport. Camels&rsquo; forestomach have unique pouch-like structures contributed to conserve water. It is worth noting that there are no seminal vesicles in Camelidae&nbsp;family and the ejaculated semen is viscous. She-camels are seasonal breeding animals with induced ovulation and diffused placenta. Growth and reproductive performances in addition to milk and concentrated urine secretion occur during these extreme harsh conditions. Intensive management system resulted in significant improvement in both&nbsp; productive and reproductive performances. It could be concluded that dromedaries is well-adapted to withstand extreme conditions in addition to their abilities to produce and reproduce.