<div>Background: Pyoderma in dog poses complexity owing to involvement of multi drug resistant bacterial infection particularly Staphylococcus species. This may result into failure of antibiotic therapy in pyoderma. Therapeutic use of lytic bacteriophage (phage) may be an alternative to deal antimicrobial resistance in veterinary medicine. There is no report available on isolation and characterization of bacteriophage from clinical cases of pyoderma in animals, hence the study was performed with aim to isolate and characterize lytic phage against methicillin resistant S. aureus (MRSA).&nbsp; 
 
Methods: The phage was isolated from pus sample of dog suffering from severe pyoderma. The phage was isolated using MRSA as a bacterial host and was named as Staphylococcus phage BVC1 (SPBVC1). The morphology of the phage was determined using TME and was characterised by determining the host range and lytic potential of the phage at range of temperature and pH. 
 
Result: The morphology of phage revealed an icosahedral head of diameter 81.31 nm. with sheath and a central tube and a tail of 92.08 nm. It showed strong lytic activity against Methicillin resistant S. aureus and was stable under a range of temperature varying from 4oC to 45oC and pH from 4 to 11. The phage has shown lytic activity against the MRSA however no lytic activity against the MSSA was shown by the phage. The high specificity of the phage for MRSA indicated its potential use as an alternative therapeutic approach against multidrug resistant staphylococcal infections.</div>

Isolation and Characterization of Lytic Bacteriophage against Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus from Pyoderma in Dog

<div>Background: Several animal species may act as a possible reservoir for transmission of MRSA to human. The aim of this study was to determine the antibiotic resistance profiles of Staphylococci from animals. 
 
Methods: A total of 754 nasal and rectal swab samples collected from apparently healthy animals at Batna and Setif governorate, eastern Algeria. For this purpose, we studied the antimicrobial susceptibility of the isolates by conventional methods (Disk diffusion test and methicillin resistance by Cefoxitin disk diffusion test). 
 
Result: The overall prevalence of S. aureus isolates from 754 samples was 43.61%, with a high rate of S. aureus isolation in rabbits (92%). Goats, bovine, dogs, cats, horses, poultry presented a medium prevalence with 31.91%, 25%, 23.75% 21.25%,15% and 15% respectively, while the lowest rate was observed in sheep with 10%. MRSA were isolated in all animal species (29.46%). All detected isolates were multiple drug resistant (MDR). A complete resistance (100%) was noted for ciprofloxacin and gentamicin in sheep and horses and to penicillin in dogs. MRSA is a serious problem for human and animal health; therefore, several experiments must be carried out to demonstrate possible transmission of MRSA between companion or food-chain animals and humans, as well as some MRSA clones of human origin that have adapted to new animal hosts eventually by losing useless virulence factors or acquiring new mobile genetic elements.</div>

<div>Occurrence of Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Carriage in Different Animal Species in Eastern Algeria</div>

<div>Background: Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) refers to a group of gram-positive bacteria that are genetically distinct from other strains of Staphylococcus aureus that has developed, through horizontal gene transfer, natural selection and multiple drug resistance to beta lactam antibiotics and thus causing many severe diseases which are very problematic to treat as they are resistant to different antibiotics. The above situation is further aggravated by the formation of biofilms which are structured aggregation of surface attached microbes encased in an extracellular matrix. Thus, the time required to develop biofilms becomes an important point to study.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: In the present study, detection of the extent of biofilm formation by MRSA isolates, was performed using the Microtitre Plate Assay. The test was performed in triplicates and was continued for a time period of 7 days to detect the extent of biofilm formation with increase in incubation interval. 
 
Result: On comparing the biofilm forming ability of different isolates from Day 1 to Day 7, it could be clearly observed that the biofilm forming capacity of isolates gradually increased with increase in incubation time and most of the isolates became strong biofilm producers from Day 4.</div>

Effect of Incubation Time on the Biofilm Formation by Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus

Background: Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infection is one of the leading causes of infections in animals as well as human beings and is associated with significant morbidity, mortality, length of stay and cost burden.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: In this study, 725 samples of nasal swabs and milk were collected randomly from cattle, buffalo, sheep and goats and these samples were inoculated on Mannitol salt agar mixed with Oxacillin Resistance Selective Supplement for the molecular characterization of MRSA isolates&nbsp; through sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test.&nbsp;

Result: Out of 725 samples, 171 were found positive for Oxacillin resistant S. aureus. The SDS-PAGE showed different bands of molecular weight 13, 17, 20, 24, 26, 28, 33, 36, 39, 43, 47, 59, 64, 72, 86, 97 and 121 kDa. An amplified mec A DNA fragment (137) of 533 base pairs (bp) and PCR product of fem A (133 isolates) of 510 bp were detected in isolates.&nbsp;

Molecular Characterization of Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Isolates from Ruminants

Background: Mastitis is one of the factors contributing to the health-related decreased milk production and quality for dairy cows. Mastitis in ruminants is a serious bacterial disease caused by Staphylococcus aureus. Staphylococcal bacteria are becoming increasingly resistant to many classes of antibiotics, particularly &beta;-lactam families like the MRSA strain. Laboratory tests are required to determine the level of bacterial resistance and to identify MRSA isolates sourced from dairy cows in Tulungagung District.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: 110 milk samples were isolated on MSA media followed by Gram&rsquo;s staining and biochemical tests. Kirby-bauer diffusion test-based assessment of antibiotic sensitivity. The S. aureus isolates that underwent the MRSA identification test were S. aureus isolates that had developed a resistance to &beta;-lactam antibiotics. 
 
Result: A total 81 samples of the 110 isolated milk samples were determined to be positive for S. aureus. Out of total isolates, 25 isolates of S. aureus had the highest level of oxacillin resistance. As many as 4 isolates were confirmed to be MultiDrug Resistance (MDR) and 17 MRSA isolates were discovered from 100 samples of dairy cows. Early diagnosis of MRSA infection is crucial since it can be challenging to treat because this type of bacteria is known to be resistant to several drugs and spreads readily.

Identification of Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus Isolated from Dairy Cow&rsquo;s Milk in Tulungagung District, Indonesia

<div>Background: Staphylococcus aureus has the ability to develop many efficient mechanisms to neutralize them and it has become difficult to control the virulent strains of S. aureus from causing staphylococcal diseases in animals and humans. Mostly Staphylococcal strains have become resistant to methicillin, &beta;-lactamase and ESBL activity and sometime to vancomycin also. The present study investigated the phenotypic and genotypic characteristics of all the 62 S. aureus isolates for sensitivity towards methicillin, b-lactamase, ESBL production and vancomycin. 
 
Methods: The isolates were obtained by conventional microbiological methods, confirmed genotypically by 23S rRNA ribotyping and Maldi-Tof MS. Methicillin resistance activity among S. aureus isolates was detected by culturing them on MeReSa Agar. Extended-spectrum b-lactamase activity among S. aureus isolates was detected by the combined disc method. 
 
Result: On MeReSa agar, 53(85.48%) isolates were detected as methicillin resistant S. aureus (MRSA), but none of the isolates from any source or place of sampling was detected positive by the methicillin disk method. Extended-spectrum b-lactamase (ESBL) activity was exhibited by 51 (82.25%) isolates with 100% (maximum) isolates from human pus showing activity and 66.66% (least activity) was seen in isolates from unprocessed meat. All the isolates were susceptible to vancomycin.</div>

Sensitivity Pattern of Staphylococcus aureus Isolates from Different Sources for Methicillin, Vancomycin, &beta;-lactamase and ESBL Production

<div>Background: Mastitis is mostly caused by mixed infections, of which S. aureus and E. coli are amongst the most important bacteria. Detection of resistant strains of these bacteria is a major public health concern due to the possibility of infection via contaminated milk and milk products intended for human consumption. This study describes simultaneous occurance of methicillin-resistant&nbsp;S. aureus and extended spectrum &beta;-lactamase producing E. coli in mastitic milk samples of buffaloes in Jabalpur, India.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: A total of 408 buffaloes milk samples were screened for mastitis by California mastitis test (CMT) test. A total of 102 mastitic milk samples were collected for isolation of Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and Eschirichia coli (E. coli). Polymerase chain reaction was performed for molecular characterization of methicillin resistant S. aureus for mecA gene and ESBL producing E. coli for bla&nbsp;TEM gene, respectively. 
 
Result: On the basis of cultural and biochemical characteristics, 31/102 samples yielded&nbsp;S. aureus and 10/102 samples yielded E. coli. Out of 31 S. aureus isolates, mecA gene was positive in 05 (16.1%) and out of 10 ESBL producing E. coli isolates bla TEM was positive in 02 (20%) isolates. Coexpression of bla&nbsp;TEM and mecA genes was recorded only in 01 (10%) isolate.</div>

Coexpression of Methicillin-resistant S. aureus and ESBL Producing E. coli in Mastitic Milk of Buffaloes

<div>Background: Mitigation process to curb the ever increasing problem of antimicrobial resistance through development of new class of antimicrobials is slow and costly affairs. Research on alternative to conventional antimicrobials using plant based products as good source of numerous phytochemicals have potential to cope up the antimicrobial resistance. The present study was formulated on detection of in vitro antimicrobial and antibiofilm properties of methanol leaf extract of Citrus maxima against clinical isolates of Staphylococcus aureus. 
 
Methods: Leaves of Citrus maxima plants were collected from the campus of College of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Central Agricultural University, Aizawl, Mizoram and processed for preparation of methanol crude extract. The plant extracts were evaluated for their phytochemical and antioxidant properties using DPPH (2, 2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) method. Twenty well characterized biofilm producing and multidrug resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains recovered from milk of mastitic cows from Mizoram were received from the cultural repository of the department. The plant extracts were subjected to determine their antimicrobial and antibiofilm activities against all the bacterial isolates including&nbsp;S. aureus (ATCC 29213) by in vitro agar well diffusion method and 96 well microtiter plate methods, respectively. The MIC value of the plant extracts were determined by microdilution method. 
 
Result: In the methanol leaf extract of C. maxima alkaloids, glycosides, terpenoids, tannin and phenol and flavonoids were detected by qualitative analysis. Saponin, protein, free amino acids, steroids and carbohydrates were not detected. The free radical scavenging potential of the extract was found to be 10.66&plusmn;1.84% to 36.10&plusmn;1.98%, which was comparatively lower than ascorbic acid (83.39&plusmn;0.13% to 89.76&plusmn;0.24%). A total of 8 (40.0%), 5 (25.0%) and 7 (35.0%) strains were recorded as weak, moderate and strong biofilm producer. Maximum antibacterial activity against standard culture was observed with the zone of inhibition of 18 mm at 200 mg/mL concentration and MIC value at 25 mg/mL. Maximum antimicrobial activities against clinical isolates were recorded with 11.8&plusmn;1.13 mm zone of inhibition at 200 mg/mL and MIC value at 25 mg/mL. The clinical isolates exhibited highest (85.94&plusmn;1.00%) biofilm inhibition at 6.25 mg/mL. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first-ever report on antibiofilm and antioxidative activities of C. maxima leaf extracts against any bacteria.</div>

Antimicrobial and Antibiofilm Activities of Methanol Leaf Extract of Citrus maxima against Clinical Isolates of Multidrug Resistant Staphylococcus aureus

<div>Background: Antimicrobial resistance is one of the latest challenges facing the scientific community. Raising the drug resistance is caused mainly by indiscriminate usage of antibiotics in human and animal subjects and the spread of antibiotic resistance between the two has an emerging global threat. Hence, current study aimed to study the antimicrobial resistance pattern and molecular detection of antibiotic resistance genes in Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli isolated from mastitis affected cows.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: Milk samples from mastitis affected cows were subjected to antibiotic sensitivity test and screened for presence of Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli using differential growth media. Molecular characterization of Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli was done with the help of PCR by amplification of &lsquo;nuc&rsquo; and &lsquo;uspA&rsquo; gene respectively. MICs of Penicillin and Tetracycline were determined using microdilution method.&nbsp; 
 
Result: Antibiotic sensitivity pattern for Penicillin G, Ampicillin, Amoxycillin, Cefotaxime, Ceftriaxone, Azithromycin, Ciprofloxacin, Gentamicin, Oxytetracycline, Tetracycline and Vancomycin were 74.19%, 100%, 93.50%, 61.29%, 29%, 35.48%, 9.70%, 9.70%, 70.96% and 70.96% &nbsp;respectively. More than 87.90% of the S. aureus and 50% of the E. coli isolated were resistant to &acirc;-lactam antibiotics while 75% of the E.coli and 65.70% of the S. aureus isolated were resistant to Tetracycline antibiotics. The MICs of Penicillin for S.aureus and E.coli are 26.88 &micro;g/ml and 13.54 &micro;g/ml respectively and the MICs of Tetracycline for S. aureus and E. coli are 243.75 &micro;g/ml and 960.93 &micro;g/ml respectively which is 8-9 folds higher than the standard MICs. From the present study, it can be inferred that bovine mastitis cases are highly resistant to antimicrobial drugs. Results further indicate that Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli are both resistant to Penicillin and Tetracycline with very high MIC. &nbsp;</div>

<div>Molecular Characterization of Antibiotic Resistance Gene Pattern of Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli in Mastitis Affected Dairy Cows</div>

<div>Background: A study was carried out to screen milk borne Staphylococcus aureus for resistance against Beta lactam antibiotics.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: A total of 45 milk samples were collected over a period of three months from large animal outpatient unit of Madras Veterinary College Hospital, Chennai. Upon collection of samples, ABST followed by its growth in Mannitol Salt Agar was carried out as part of the phenotypic screening. Genotypic screening for Staphylococcus screening was done with the help of PCR by using nuc &nbsp;and mec A primers. MIC for ceftriaxone and cloxacillin was carried out with the samples that were found positive for Staphylococcus aureus. The antibiotic sensitivity pattern is presented: Fluoroquinolones (87.5% sensitive), aminoglycosides (72.5% sensitive), Amoxicillin-Clavulanic acid (Amoxyclave) (72.5% sensitive). The MSA positive samples were subjected to molecular identification with the help of PCR.&nbsp; 
 
Result: The results revealed 10 samples positive for Staphylococcus aureus and 5 among them positive for mecA gene. The MIC results were as follows: MIC50-10.95&micro;g/ml and MIC90- 87.510.95&micro;g/ml for ceftriaxone and MIC50- 43.75 &micro;g/ml and MIC90- 87.5&micro;g/ml for cloxacillin, indicating emergence of resistance. However, further studies are required in a larger sample size that can help us to attain more conclusive results.</div>

Isolation and Characterization of Lytic Bacteriophage against Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus from Pyoderma in Dog

Occurrence of Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Carriage in Different Animal Species in Eastern Algeria

Effect of Incubation Time on the Biofilm Formation by Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus

Molecular Characterization of Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Isolates from Ruminants

Identification of Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus Isolated from Dairy Cow’s Milk in Tulungagung District, Indonesia

Sensitivity Pattern of Staphylococcus aureus Isolates from Different Sources for Methicillin, Vancomycin, β-lactamase and ESBL Production

Coexpression of Methicillin-resistant S. aureus and ESBL Producing E. coli in Mastitic Milk of Buffaloes

Antimicrobial and Antibiofilm Activities of Methanol Leaf Extract of Citrus maxima against Clinical Isolates of Multidrug Resistant Staphylococcus aureus

Molecular Characterization of Antibiotic Resistance Gene Pattern of Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli in Mastitis Affected Dairy Cows

Screening of Milk Borne Staphylococcus aureus for Resistance against Beta Lactam Antibiotics