<div style="text-align: justify;">Environment is an important aspect of plant ecology and global environmental change is of major concern that is caused by natural and human activities which alter greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere. The increase in concentration of greenhouse gases is foreseen to continue to raise average global temperature. Elevated concentration of carbon dioxide with increased temperature influences the plant-disease interactions. The environment has an influence over the development as well as temporal and spatial dissemination of plant diseases. The result of change in environment can either be favorable, non favorable or impartial, as these changes can either lessen, expand or have no influence on diseases as each disease may be attributed differently to these variations in accordance to an area or time of year. Variation in environmental conditions is said to be influencing plants in natural ecosystems all around the world and change in climate directly impacts crops, along with their synergy in accordance with the microbial population. The important elements governing magnification and spread of plant diseases are temperature, moisture, light and carbon dioxide concentration. Environment change causes a significant impact on germination, reproduction, sporulation, spore dispersal, along with perforation by pathogens as a vulnerable host will not be invaded by a pernicious pathogen if the environmental conditions are not facilitative for disease. The environment influences all life stages of host as well as that of a pathogen and as a result induces an opposition to various pathosystems. Resistance mechanisms of plants, including effector-triggered immunity (ETI), pattern-triggered immunity (PTI) and defence network of hormones, are particularly influenced by environmental elements. Pathogenic virulence mechanisms like fabrication of virulence proteins and toxins, and also spore germination and survival are governed by factors such as atmospheric carbon dioxide, temperature and humidity. A large number of in-vitro experiments to understand interactions between plants and pathogens rely on predetermined pathosystems by making use of ascertained environmental conditions which take into consideration relatively small part of vital plant&ndash;pathogen&ndash;environment interactions occurring in natural ecosystem. Thus, there is a need to research effectiveness of disease management strategies that is, to assess current management strategies to understand multifaceted nature of environment-pathogen interactions for production of crops that are irrepressible to environment change.</div>

Environment-Pathogen Interaction in Plant Diseases

<div>Phosphorus is a major plant nutrient obtained from non-renewable phosphate rock, which is not much available in India. Over and above in this its recovery efficiency in crops hardly exceeds 15-20 per cent. Utmost care is therefore required in its use. Phosphorus applied to soil gets fixed by the formation of insoluble reaction products by reacting with Fe and Al in acid soils and with calcium in saline and alkaline soils. Two techniques used for identification of reaction products are X-ray diffraction and solubility product principle. In addition, phosphate ions are also held on Fe and Al hydroxides by anion exchange. The reaction products identified are variscite and strengite minerals in acid soils and dicalcium phosphate and hydroxy apatite in calcareous soils. Methods to increase phosphorus recovery by crops include: 1) addition of organic matter to soils; 2) addition of sulphur to compost or to ground rock phosphate or directly to soil and use of phosphorus solubilising organisms including VAM/AM along with ground rock phosphate.</div>

<div>Phosphorus &times; Other Plant Nutrient Interactions, Reaction Products, Anion Exchange and Phosphate Fixation in Soil and Strategies to Increase Availability of the Native and Applied P to Crop Plants-A Mini Review and Critique</div>

<div>Background: Symbiotic associations between legumes and Rhizobia are ancient and fundamental. However, the plant growth-promoting endophytes other than Rhizobia are not yet fully explored for pulses productivity. The present study was aimed to isolate efficient endophytic bacteria from pulses, assess their diversity, screen their plant growth-promoting activities and to test their potential as bio inoculants for pulses. 
 
Methods: We have isolated several endophytic bacteria from pulse crops more specifically from blackgram (Vigna mungo) and greengram (Vigna radiata). After careful screening, 15 promising endophytic isolates were selected for this study. The identification of endophytic bacterial isolates was performed by 16S rRNA gene sequencing. The isolates were tested for their potential for the plant growth-promoting traits such as nitrogen fixation, phosphate solubilization, indole-3-acetic acid production, siderophore secretion and antifungal activity. Pot culture experiments were conducted with the screened potential endophytic cultures. 
 
Result: The 16S rRNA gene sequencing revealed that species of Enterobacter, Bacillus, Pantoea, Pseudomonas, Acromobacter, Ocrobacterium were found as endophytes in blackgram and greengram. The in vitro screening identified Bacillus pumilus (BG-E6), Pseudomonas fluorescens (BG-E5) and Bacillus licheniformis (BG-E3) from blackgram and Pseudomonas chlororaphis (GG-E2) and Bacillus thuringiensis (GG-E7) from greengram as potential plant growth-promoting endophytes. These strains showed antagonism against plant pathogenic fungi. Upon inoculation of these endophytic PGPR strains, the blackgram and greengram growth and yield got increased. Among the strains, BG-E6 recorded 14.7% increased yield in blackgram and GG-E2 accounted for a 19.5% yield increase in greengram compared to respective uninoculated control. The experimental results showed that there was a host specificity found among the endophytic bacterial cultures with pulses. The cross inoculation of endophytic strains did not perform well to enhance the growth and yield of their alternate hosts.&nbsp;</div>

<div>Assessing the Plant Growth-promoting Traits and Host Specificity of Endophytic Bacteria of Pulse Crops</div>

<div>Plant and herbivorous insect share a contradictory but everlasting relationship. To cope with the herbivores, plant invested its energy in the production of various defensive chemicals which are known as plant secondary metabolites (PSMs). During coevolution with plants, insects also adapted themselves to counter plant defensive mechanisms. The secreted saliva and ovipositional fluids of insects induce the production of secondary metabolites in plants. Plants also produce compounds constitutively in the tissues that are susceptible to insect attack. These compounds reduce insect growth and development of insects through interfering with the developmental phases, acting as feeding deterrent, reducing nutritive value, affecting protein digestion and the production of substances toxic to them. On the contrary, insect&rsquo;s adaptations to PSMs include the detoxification of plant toxins, conversion of the toxic compounds into conducible form for its growth and development, development of feeding choice based on the concentration of PSMs, quicker absorption and elimination as feces and obtaining the help of symbiotic intestinal microorganism to inactivate toxic materials. Furthermore, insects also utilize PSMs as chemical cues mediated through their chemoreceptive systems. The selection of host plants by monophagous insect is sometimes concentrated on the production of particular PSMs. Secondary metabolites also act as attractant to insect pollinators by exhibiting distinctive odors. Insects also store toxic PSMs which are used by them against their predators and in giving protection to eggs. However, this intrinsic capability of plants to produce defensive chemicals in response to insect attack should be explored to a wide extent to optimize the performance of PSMs.</div>

​Insect Plant Interaction with Reference to Secondary Metabolites: A Review

The rhizosphere, a narrow zone of interaction between plant roots and soil, represents a critical interface regulating plant growth, nutrient cycling and soil health. This study reviews the ecological and functional significance of plant-microbe interactions within the rhizosphere and their implications for sustainable agriculture. Root exudates, microbial diversity and soil physicochemical properties collectively shape the composition and activity of microbial communities. Beneficial organisms, including plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) and mycorrhizal fungi, facilitate nutrient mobilization, enhance stress tolerance and suppress soil-borne pathogens. Conversely, pathogenic microbes such as Fusarium and Ralstonia negatively impact crop productivity and threaten agricultural sustainability. Emerging biotechnological approaches harness these beneficial interactions to improve soil fertility and reduce dependence on chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Techniques such as microbial inoculants, rhizosphere microbiome engineering and biocontrol agents show promise for enhancing crop performance under sustainable farming systems. However, their efficiency is often limited by variable microbial colonization, inconsistent field responses and environmental heterogeneity. Recent advancements in molecular tools, including metagenomics and the development of synthetic microbial communities, provide new insights into rhizosphere complexity and functionality. Understanding and managing these interactions can drive the development of ecologically sound strategies to enhance crop productivity, promote soil resilience and address global challenges of food security and climate change. 
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Plant-Microbe Interactions and Rhizosphere Dynamics for Sustainable Agriculture: A Review

Background: The objective of this study was to analyze the chemical composition of Eri silk cocoons that were reared on various combinations of host plants. The primary host plant castor and secondary host plants such as kesseru, tapioca, gulancha and papaya were utilized in various combinations for different instars. 
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Methods: The present analysis was conducted in lab at Department of Entomology, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Siksha &lsquo;O&rsquo; Anusandhan, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India during spring season of the year 2022-23. SEM/EDX was used to investigate the cocoons metal elements. Each sample was examined separately to evaluate metal content. Conductive carbon tape attached specimens to stubs. The metal elemental analysis of the scaffold was performed by EDX attached to the scanning electron microscope. 
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Result: For silk cocoon inner surfaces, the metal elements were ordered as follows: C&gt;O&gt;Mo&gt;K&gt;Cl&gt;Ca&gt;Si&gt;Na&gt;Mg&gt;Al. Some Eri cocoons were produced on different host plants and had somewhat different exteriors, but all had evenly distributed components. C and O were abundant on all silk cocoons&rsquo; inner and outer surfaces. Cocoons produced on many host plants have higher chemical metal element levels on their exterior and interior surfaces than those raised on a single host plant. The study suggests that chemical factors have a role in silk cocooning, encouraging the creation of &beta;-sheet structure. 
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Exploring the Metal Composition of Eri Silkworm Cocoons Reared on Diverse Host Plant Combinations

<div>Micronutrient deficiency is a big concern around the world since it causes serious social and health problems. Micronutrient availability is low on millions of hectares of land around the world, including India. Zn deficiency in Indian soils has reached 47% and Fe deficiency has reached 13%. The main causes of micronutrient deficit in soil are excessive fertilizer use (over the RDF), soil erosion and other agronomic practices that obstruct the movement of micronutrients. A promising and sustainable agriculture-based method called biofortification aims to reduce Zn and Fe deficiencies in dietary food ingredients. The plant breeding method to create biofortified crops and agronomic supplementation of micronutrients, such as foliar/soil application together with chemical fertilisers, have drawn the most attention among the various strategies used. Interactions between plants and microbes are recognised to be essential for enhancing the nutrient status of the soil and enriching micronutrients through the solubilization, mobilisation and translocation of metals to various parts of the plant. This symbiotic relationship enhances the quality and yield of crops, while innovative food processing techniques can offer cost-effective biofortified food solutions to address the nutritional needs of undernourished populations.Micronutrient deficiency is a big concern around the world since it causes serious social and health problems. Micronutrient availability is low on millions of hectares of land around the world, including India. Zn deficiency in Indian soils has reached 47% and Fe deficiency has reached 13%. The main causes of micronutrient deficit in soil are excessive fertilizer use (over the RDF), soil erosion and other agronomic practices that obstruct the movement of micronutrients. A promising and sustainable agriculture-based method called biofortification aims to reduce Zn and Fe deficiencies in dietary food ingredients. The plant breeding method to create biofortified crops and agronomic supplementation of micronutrients, such as foliar/soil application together with chemical fertilisers, have drawn the most attention among the various strategies used. Interactions between plants and microbes are recognised to be essential for enhancing the nutrient status of the soil and enriching micronutrients through the solubilization, mobilisation and translocation of metals to various parts of the plant. This symbiotic relationship enhances the quality and yield of crops, while innovative food processing techniques can offer cost-effective biofortified food solutions to address the nutritional needs of undernourished populations.</div>

Biofortification of Iron and Zinc in Field Crops Through Plant Microbe Interaction: A Review

Ca-B interactions in crop plants are essential in crop productivity, quality and stress-tolerance in a variety of agro-climatic conditions. This review discusses the complex processes behind Ca-B nutrition in plants, both at the molecular interaction level and in the field. Calcium ionically bridges with the pectin compounds at the cellular level and boron forms borate crosslinking with rhamnogalacturonan II (RG-II). The resulting B-RG-II complex that involves two molecules of boric acid and two Ca2+&nbsp;ions is important to retain the cell wall integrity. The effect of these nutrients during the plant development is synergistic and when there is deficiency of boron, it leads to increased cytosolic Ca2+&nbsp;and also calcium-regulated gene expression. Physicochemical properties of soil play a great role in Ca-B dynamics. Boron adsorption on clay minerals is enhanced as pH rises reaching a peak of about pH 9.0 in alkaline environment. The arable land of the world is estimated at around 50% of the global land, with 50% of this area being acid in nature making the availability of the two nutrients to be limited and thus requires strategic interventions. Optimised Ca-B nutrition leads to significant increases in yield of major crops. This can only be achieved through combined methods of soil testing, precise fertilisation and environmental concerns to facilitate good management. Nutrient management strategies are being transformed with the new technologies such as genomics, metabolomics, precision agriculture, mycorrhizal associations and machine learning algorithms. New areas of research should be directed towards new decision support systems, molecular level interventions, sustainable boron recovery of waste streams and mycorrhizal-mediated nutrient interactions. 
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Calcium-boron Interactions in Plant Nutrition: From Molecular Mechanisms to Agricultural Applications: A Review

<div>Background: The legume pod borer, Helicoverpa armigera (H&uuml;bner), is one of the most damaging crop pests, including pigeonpea. Host plant resistance is a component of pest management and therefore, we standardize a nylon bag No-Choice Bioassay technique to screen for resistance to H. armigera under field conditions. 
 
Methods: Pigeonpea plants were infested with 24 h old 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 larvae per plant inside the nylon bag. Observations were recorded on pod damage, larval survival, larval weight, pupation, adult emergence, and fecundity after 10 days. 
 
Result: Pigeonpea varieties AL-201, H03-41 and PAU-881 exhibited lower pod damage (15.89 to 19.77%) and larval weight (12.02 to 13.82 mg). The expression of resistance to H. armigera was associated with trichome density, pod wall thickness and higher amount of phenolic compounds and condensed tannins. Lower trichome density and thin pod walls and higher amounts of sugars rendered the varieties Paras, Manak and Pussa-992 more susceptible to H. armigera. Nylon bag assay can be used to screen and select pigeonpea cultivars for resistance to H. armigera.</div>

​Screening of Pigeonpea Varieties through Nylon Bag No-choice Bioassay for Host Plant Resistance to Helicoverpa armigera

<div>Background: Newcastle disease is one of the most contagious viral diseases caused by the Newcastle disease virus (NDV) which causes a huge loss in the terms of economy as well as mortality level in the poultry sector. The viral matrix protein is one of the proteins which helps in the attachment of virus, budding and assembly of progeny virions in the host cell. Host-pathogen interaction plays a very important role in the changeover of genetic diversity in organisms.&nbsp; 
 
Methods:&nbsp;The amino acid sequences of chicken BRD2 gene and matrix protein of NDV were used for structure prediction and visualization of protein-protein interaction between BRD2 and matrix protein by using Discovery Studio software. The nucleotide sequences of both genes were used for evolutionary analysis using MEGA7 software followed by selection pressure analysis using online Datamonkey server.&nbsp;&nbsp; 
 
Result: The results indicated that the ligand was attached with the matrix protein, which acts as a receptor on the virus surface. The purifying selection has been evident for the viral matrix protein gene. The docking of viral protein with host BRD2 protein has been detected in the study which further warrants experimental validation. In conclusion, the viral matrix protein interacts at amino acid position Tyrosine-148, Valine-339, Alanine-341 with ligand present on the chicken BRD2 protein. The evolutionary analysis revealed that the matrix protein of NDV R2B strain was the closest to that of Peacock, pigeon, duck and quail however, it exhibited maximum distance with the chicken NDV from Ireland, Vietnam and Haryana state of India.</div>

In silico Prediction of Molecular Docking between Chicken BRD2 and Newcastle Disease Virus Matrix Protein to Elucidate Host-pathogen Interaction