<div>Background: There is scanty literature available about concurrent infection of Pestes des Petits (PPR) and emerging opportunistic bacterial pathogens in field conditions. Thus, study was conducted to investigate the above based on necropsy.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: Systematic necropsy examination was conducted on 50 small ruminant carcasses. Detailed study included virological, bacteriological, gross and microscopic investigation on tissues collected using standard techniques. PPR virus (PPRV) antigen was detected in various samples using sandwich Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (s-ELISA). Bacterial pathogens were isolated on blood agar and identified by VITEK&reg; system. 
 
Result: Eleven goats and nine sheep had concurrent infection. Highest positivity for PPRV antigen was observed in nasal and tracheal swab, lungs and lungs associated lymph nodes. Pasteurella multocida was the major bacteria found to cause fibrinious hemorrhagic broncho-alveolar pneumonia followed by Klebsiella pneumoniae spp. pneumoniae producing suppurative bronchoalveolar pneumonia in the presence of PPR infection. Sphingomonas paucimobilis and Acinetobacter baumannii, human pathogen were also isolated and found to produce severe hemorrhagic interstitial pneumonia and serofibrinous bronchopneumonia respectively in presence of PPR which is novel finding. Our study is the first report of necropsy based investigation on concurrent infection in sheep and goats.</div>

<div>A Necropsy based Investigation on Concurrent Infection of PPR and Emerging Opportunistic Bacterial Pathogens in Sheep and Goat</div>

<div>Background: Blackgram is an important pulse crop grown in India. In which, prediction of planting value of seeds before sowing is important for assured yield. Standard germination test is time consuming and doesn&rsquo;t always show the seed lots potential performance, especially if field conditions are not optimal. Radicle emergence test is considered as one of the important physiological vigour test. This is a quick vigour test and also determines the planting value of various seed lots under wide range of climatic conditions. 
 
Methods: The laboratory experiment was carried out at the Department of Seed Science and Technology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore during 2019-2020 to standardize the radicle emergence test to predict seed vigour and field emergence in ten different seed lots [L1 to L4: high vigour lots (&gt; 90% germination), L5 to L7: medium vigour lots (80-90% germination) and L8 to L10: low vigour lots (&lt;80% germination)] of blackgram var. VBN 6. The radicle emergence test was conducted through top of paper method adopting ISTA rules. 
 
Result: The results showed that the significant differences were observed between seed lots in terms of physiological parameters viz., speed of germination, germination percentage, root length, shoot length, dry matter production, vigour index, mean just germination time (MJGT), mean germination time (MGT), radicle emergence and field emergence and biochemical parameters viz., electrical conductivity of seed leachate and dehydrogenase enzyme activity. The results also revealed that the seed vigour can be grouped in three categories viz., high, medium and low vigour based on the relationship between MGT and field emergence. When the MGT was &lt;25 hours, the seed lots which exceeds 85 per cent field emergence could be considered as high vigour; when the MGT was 25-26 hours, the seed lots with 70-85 per cent field emergence could be considered as medium vigour and when the MGT was&gt;26 hours, the seed lots with below 70 per cent field emergence which could be considered as low vigour.</div>

​Standardization of Radicle Emergence Test to Predict Seed Vigour and Field Emergence in Blackgram [Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper]

Field experiments were conducted during summer (April to June), 2010 and 2011 to study the effect of post-emergence herbicides in irrigated blackgram (ADT 5). Treatments comprising of three levels (50, 75 and 100 g /ha) of the post- emergence herbicides viz., Imazethapyr 10% SL and Quizalofop ethyl 5% EC were tested alone and in combination and compared with hand weeding twice on 15 and 30 DAS(farmers&rsquo; practice). Herbicides were sprayed on 15 DAS when the weeds were 2-4 leaves stage using flat-fan nozzle as per treatment schedule. The results revealed that minimum total weed density (8.44) and weed dry weight ( 27.2 g/m2) and higher weed control efficiency (84.4%) were obtained under combined application of imazethapyr and quizalofop ethyl as tank mix at 100 g /ha. However, this was comparable with application of both the herbicides at 75g /ha. Application of imazethapyr + quizalofop ethyl each at 75 g/ha registered significantly taller plants, higher dry matter production, more number of pods per plant, seeds per pod and higher grain yield (826 kg/ha), net returns (Rs.26621/ha) and benefit cost ratio (2.76). Thus, application of post- emergence herbicides imazethapyr + quizalofop ethyl each at 75 g /ha as tank mix on 15 DAS could be recommended for controlling of emerged weeds in irrigated blackgram.

Management of emerged weeds in irrigated blackgram (Vigna mungo L.) through post-emergence herbicides

<div style="text-align: justify;">Environment is an important aspect of plant ecology and global environmental change is of major concern that is caused by natural and human activities which alter greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere. The increase in concentration of greenhouse gases is foreseen to continue to raise average global temperature. Elevated concentration of carbon dioxide with increased temperature influences the plant-disease interactions. The environment has an influence over the development as well as temporal and spatial dissemination of plant diseases. The result of change in environment can either be favorable, non favorable or impartial, as these changes can either lessen, expand or have no influence on diseases as each disease may be attributed differently to these variations in accordance to an area or time of year. Variation in environmental conditions is said to be influencing plants in natural ecosystems all around the world and change in climate directly impacts crops, along with their synergy in accordance with the microbial population. The important elements governing magnification and spread of plant diseases are temperature, moisture, light and carbon dioxide concentration. Environment change causes a significant impact on germination, reproduction, sporulation, spore dispersal, along with perforation by pathogens as a vulnerable host will not be invaded by a pernicious pathogen if the environmental conditions are not facilitative for disease. The environment influences all life stages of host as well as that of a pathogen and as a result induces an opposition to various pathosystems. Resistance mechanisms of plants, including effector-triggered immunity (ETI), pattern-triggered immunity (PTI) and defence network of hormones, are particularly influenced by environmental elements. Pathogenic virulence mechanisms like fabrication of virulence proteins and toxins, and also spore germination and survival are governed by factors such as atmospheric carbon dioxide, temperature and humidity. A large number of in-vitro experiments to understand interactions between plants and pathogens rely on predetermined pathosystems by making use of ascertained environmental conditions which take into consideration relatively small part of vital plant&ndash;pathogen&ndash;environment interactions occurring in natural ecosystem. Thus, there is a need to research effectiveness of disease management strategies that is, to assess current management strategies to understand multifaceted nature of environment-pathogen interactions for production of crops that are irrepressible to environment change.</div>

Environment-Pathogen Interaction in Plant Diseases

<div>In 2011, a new virus was isolated from swine with influenza-like symptoms in Oklahoma, USA. Later in 2013, it was also evidenced in cattle, considered as its natural reservoir, elsewhere in the USA. This new virus has certain resemblance with Influenza C virus (ICV), predominately a human pathogen. Due to its inability to re-assort with ICV, it is now classified as Influenza D virus (IDV) and is a new candidate in the Orthomyxoviridae family. It causes mild respiratory disease in several animal species and replicates in both upper and lower respiratory tract. To date, serological evidence was demonstrated in various animal species and humans in all continents except Australia. It is transmitted through direct contact or through aerosol routes. Not much is known about its potential impact to animal and human health but it poses a potential risk as an emerging threat to cattle-workers. Currently, limited data is available on its global occurrence and distribution. Therefore, in current review, we summarize the global available data regarding epidemiology, pathology, zoonotic potential and future perspectives of this virus. In conclusion, continuous surveillance and risk assessment of this emerging virus is required.</div>

<div>Peeping into the Emerging Threat of Novel Influenza D Virus: A Review</div>

<div>Background: Different lentil-growing regions in India have reported that the lentil wilt poses a serious threat to crop cultivation because it can result in 100 percent crop losses. The fungus Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lentis is the pathogen responsible for the disease. This infection is carried through the seed and soil. 
 
Methods: To understand the current status of the wilt pathogen in the total of twenty-two lentil-growing areas in Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh, the present study was conducted over the course of the two consecutive years 2017-18 and 2018-19, to track the incidence and prevalence of the disease. Observations were made on the numbers of diseased plants and number of infected fields to record incidence and prevalence of the lentil wilt, repectively. Moreover, twenty two isolates were collected to examine the different spores, pathogenicity levels and degree of correlation between both of them.&nbsp; 
 
Result: The data showed that the pathogen was present in every area at 100 per cent prevalence, with a disease incidence within 6.22-26.25 per cent. Data derived from 100 per cent availability of the pathogen inoculum in all lentil-growing regions over the course of two years predicts the emergence of the wilt disease threat to the crop. The observations indicate that the pathogen&rsquo;s inoculum level had increased as the incidence of the disease increased during the subsequent crop season. It was also observed that spore size somewhat affects the pathogenicity of the isolates.Therefore the present study was conducted to observe the impact of wilt pathogen on different lentil grown areas and to alarm the farmers about this emerging threat.</div>

Prevalence and Pathogenicity of the Isolates of Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lentis in Different lentil Grown Areas of Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh

<div>A vector is an organism capable of transmitting pathogens from one host to another. Among the plant pathogen transmitting agencies, insect vectors are most important and various plant pathogens in crops are transmitted by insects. Insect vectors are much more hazardous because small population of vector can spread the pathogen in whole of the field or to new areas. These are difficult to manage and hence multi-pronged strategy should be adopted. To effectively manage insect vectors of plant pathogens there is a need to look into the careful timing of application of chemicals, integrated treatment with vector sampling, estimation of threshold level of vectors, assessing infection of pathogen at varying period of the year and combining insecticides with other means of control such as resistant cultivars, natural enemies, inclusion of plant products, cultural practices, biotechnology tools etc. An integration of control measures will be more effective and ecologically sound than any single method to control insect vectors of plant pathogens. The control of insect vectors with the use of various tactics should be used to reduce the severity and to delay appearance of disease.</div>

<div>Integrated Management of Insect Vectors of Plant Pathogens</div>

<div>Several human infections have emerged in the last three decades, most of them are attributed to wildlife origin. Two third of the emerging zoonotic infections are attributed to viruses. Emerging and re-emerging fatal viral diseases like Nipah virus disease, Hendra Virus disease, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome, Middle East Respiratory Syndrome, Ebola and Marburg haemorrhagic fever have been witnessed recently, causative agents of which have been associated with bats. Ecology of bats influences the host-pathogen interaction and is responsible for harbouring several viruses, which under favourable conditions spill over to intermediate hosts. Conditions and events, such as deforestation, agricultural and livestock practices, animal migration and trade, eco-tourism, urbanization and other anthropogenic factors, greatly influence the successful interspecies transmission and emergence/re-emergence of zoonoses. This review highlights, the bats ecological factors and human-bat interface, responsible for zoonotic outbreaks in past. The implementation of an integrated approach is needed for unravelling the host-virus dynamics as well as providing mutually beneficial solutions for bat conservation and safeguarding animal and public health at a global level.</div>

Bat&rsquo;s Role in Emergence and Spillover of Viral Zoonotic Diseases: A Review

<div>Background: Groundnut encounters severe infestation of weed especially during the early stages of growth due to less crop canopy which allows higher weeds growth and thus crop becomes more susceptible to weed competition. During rainy season, effective and economical weed control is not possible through manual and mechanical weeding due to unfavorable soil conditions and also the unavailability of costly labours. Herbicides have been accepted as cost effective tool to manage weed menace in groundnut. The current study aims to study the efficancy of different post-emergence and pre-mix combination of post-emergence herbicides on weeds, growth and yield of groundnut. 
 
Methods: The field experiment was conducted at AICRP Weed Management field, Department of Agronomy, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola (M.S.) during three consecutive Kharif seasons of 2015- 2017. The experiment was laid out in Randomized Block Design with ten treatments replicated thrice. The treatments comprised of one pre emergence and five different post emergence herbicides and compared with weed free and weedy check. 
 
Result: The results revealed that weed free was found most effective to control weeds in groundnut with lowest weed count, weed dry matter of weeds and maximum gross monetary returns (Rs.117641/ha), net monetary returns (Rs.80894/ha). Among the herbicides, application of Imazethapyr + Imazomox 0.10 kg /ha POE 20 DAS produced less weed count and weed dry matter and highest weed control efficiency (80.68%) and lower weed index (6.71% ) as well as maximum growth, yield attributes and pod yield in groundnut over all the other herbicidal treatments viz. plant height (30.25), dry matter accumulation (18.11g), number of pods/plant (32.35) and pod yield (2448 kg/ha) and highest pooled B:C ratio (3.74).</div>

<div>Efficacy of Post Emergence Herbicides in Groundnut</div>

Background: Nigrospora is one of the diversified pathogens with wide host range. Endophytic nature of Nigrospora oryzae has been reported previously. Daily variations in the climate led to the emergence of virulent infections from previously expressed weak ones. Nigrospora oryzae infestation comes as a major biotic stress under this present investigation.&nbsp; 
&nbsp; 
Methods: A study was conducted to examine the variability of Nigrospora oryzae by collecting isolates from various locations in the south coastal region of Odisha. The level of virulence was assessed and analyzed between 2021 and 2023 to anticipate the emergence and progression of disease. The pathogen was identified using molecular techniques through ITS-r DNA sequencing method. 
&nbsp; 
Result: Disease incidence was observed as a critical blast-like appearance, but greater in size, distinguishing it from blast. In the experiment, incomplete filling of grains was highest in MTU-7029 (39.73 plant-1) followed by Niranjana and Gobindobhog; disease incidence was recorded to be highest in Niranjana (60.03%) followed by MTU-7029 and Barsha; and grain yield plant-1&nbsp;was observed to be highly affected in Gobindobhog (14.58 g plant-1&nbsp;followed by MTU-7029 and Niranjana. Molecular confirmation was established by ITS-rDNA sequencing, resulted sequence NO 9 (528 bp)- OP592217 and NO 15 (519 bp)- OP592218, exactly matches gene bank accession numbers- MH748173 (India) and ON514037 (India) of Nigrospora database, with 99% accuracy.

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A Necropsy based Investigation on Concurrent Infection of PPR and Emerging Opportunistic Bacterial Pathogens in Sheep and Goat

Standardization of Radicle Emergence Test to Predict Seed Vigour and Field Emergence in Blackgram [Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper]

Management of emerged weeds in irrigated blackgram (Vigna mungo L.) through post-emergence herbicides

Environment-Pathogen Interaction in Plant Diseases

Peeping into the Emerging Threat of Novel Influenza D Virus: A Review

Prevalence and Pathogenicity of the Isolates of Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lentis in Different lentil Grown Areas of Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh

Integrated Management of Insect Vectors of Plant Pathogens

Bat’s Role in Emergence and Spillover of Viral Zoonotic Diseases: A Review

Efficacy of Post Emergence Herbicides in Groundnut

Emergence of Nigrospora Leaf Blight as Major Biotic Stress in South Eastern Coastal Region of India