<div style="text-align: justify;">Morphological and morphometrical study of pelvic limb bones from adult birds viz., ostrich (n=4), emu (n=6), domestic fowl (n=8) and duck (n=8) were carried out. Pubic symphysis was a distinctive feature of os coxae in ostrich. Medial surface of ilium was united to lumbosacral mass in ostrich and emu, whereas, only medial border made fusion in domestic fowl and duck. Post acetabular ilium was an elongated triangle in ostrich and emu, whereas, quadrilateral plate in domestic fowl and duck. Iliac fossae for kidneys were lacking in ostrich and emu. Ischium was a long rod in ostrich and emu. Ilio-ischiatic notch was present in ostrich and emu, while, ilio-ischiatic foramen was found in domestic fowl and duck. Caudal extremity of pubis was free in all the species studied excluding ostrich. Ostrich and emu exhibited a distinct pneumatic foramen on femur which was lacking in domestic fowl and duck. Length ratio of femur to tibiotarsus was 1:1.75, 1:1.88, 1:1.38 and 1:1.69 in ostrich, emu, domestic fowl and duck correspondingly. Lateral cnemial crest was a large tuberosity in ostrich; whereas, in other species it was a thick curved spine. &nbsp;Hypotarsus was in the form of spine in ostrich and emu. Bony spur of tarsometatarsus observed in male domestic fowl was lacking in the other species. Distal extremity showed two trochleae in ostrich, whereas, three trochleae, in the other species. Ostrich is the only didactyl bird with two digits. Emu possessed three digits, while, domestic fowl and duck possessed four. Our present study revealed pneumatic femur, longer tibiotarsus and tarsometatarsus and less number of digits in ostrich and emu. &nbsp;Reduction in number of phalanges also led to reduce the number of muscles and tendons associated to digits. The above mentioned features may aid ostrich and emu for high-speed locomotion.</div>

<div style="text-align: justify;">Comparative morphological studies of the pelvic limb bones in ostrich (<em>Struthio camelus</em>), emu (<em>Dromaius novaehollandiae</em>), domestic fowl (<em>Gallus gallus domesticus</em>) and duck (<em>Anas platyrhynchos domesticus</em>)&nbsp;</div>

<p style="text-align:justify">China has about 107 local chicken breeds and is considered one of the richest countries in terms of genetic resources. This diversity is a source of richness natural resources across the globe and is regarded as an excellent material for genetic improvement of breeds or breeding new breeds around the world. The present review highlights the recent evidence and studies of chicken origin and domestication in China and Southeast Asia. The evidence of molecular genetics and archeological results supported that multiple regions and event were contributed to the creation of chicken evolution from Red Jungle fowl and the findings proposed that one of events happened in domestication of chicken 8000 BP in Southeast of Asia. Several researchers confirmed that China was declared as most important of the world as a first centers for the chicken&rsquo;s domestication and these chickens have remained in many archaeological sites in China.</p>


<p class="ql-align-justify">China as a Center of Origin and Domestication of Chicken: A Review</p>

<div style="text-align: justify;">In the present investigation, 6 numbers of each apparently healthy adult Pati duck and local fowl of Assam were utilized for detailed gross, histomorphological, histochemical and ultrastructural studies. The Harderian gland in the Patiducks &nbsp;and Fowl were located in the medioventral region of the orbital cavity attached along with the eye ball. The gland was not having any grossly demercablelobulation but still there was dorsally slightly narrow part whereas the ventral part was somewhat more wider. In duck, from the capsule, thin connective tissue septa penetrated into the gland and divided parenchyma it into lobes and lobules which were unequal and polygonal in shape. Each lobule contained a central lumen. From the capsule and septa thin streaks of interstitial connective tissue penetrated between the acini and tubules. The columnar epithelial cells lining the acini showed considerable variation in height depending on their functional state. The nerve fibers were also extending from the capsule inside the parenchyma along with the other connective tissue fibers. Harderian gland of Fowl was also covered with a thin connective tissue capsule and consisted of coarse collagen, fine reticular and elastic fibers, blood vessels, &nbsp;and nerve fibers, which were penetrating the parenchyma very frequently by forming septa and trabeculae. The glands were to be of multilobulartubulo-alveolar type and emptied into a wide lumen which was lined by columnar epithelial cells. The histochemical sections were found positive for PAS Alcian blue. The reaction for acid phosphates and alkaline phosphatase were also moderate to intense in the harderian gland. The scanning electron microphotograph of harderian gland showed the acini, secretory granules and connective tissue fibers in the duck and fowl. The secretions of the gland were accommodated inside the acini and looks like a woollen ball.&nbsp;</div>

Macro and Micro anatomical study of Harderian Gland of Duck and Fowl

<div style="text-align: justify;">Occurrence of Newcastle disease (ND) and characterization of the Avian Paramyxovirus-1 (APMV-1) amongst backyard fowls (Gallus gallus domesticus) and pigeon (Columba livia domestica) was studied. ND was suspected in two fowl flocks (100% morbidity, 86% mortality) and six pigeon flocks (21.68% morbidity, 14.16% mortality) with respiratory and/or enteric clinical signs in fowls and predominantly neurological signs in pigeons was observed. Cloacal swabs, tissue lysates or infected allantoic fluid could haemagglutinate (HA) chicken erythrocytes and pigeon convalescent serum inhibited haemagglutination (antibody titres &gt;1/16). A 534 bp product was amplified from clinical samples and infected allantoic fluids by Reverse Transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR) targeting a partial Fusion protein gene including its cleavage site. The fowl and pigeon isolate was found to be velogenic and lentogenic respectively by virulence characterization. Fowl isolate grown in chicken embryonated eggs (CEE) showed 10-8.68 Embryo Infectious Dose (EID50) with a Mean Death Time (MDT) of 51.43 h and the Intra-Cerebral Pathogenicity Index (ICPI) in day-old chicks was 1.51. Pigeon isolate had corresponding values of 10-7.20 EID50, MDT of 92.00 h and ICPI of 0.43. Deduced amino acid sequence at Fusion protein cleavage site showed 112R-R-R-K-R*F117 velogenic motif for the fowl isolate and 112G-R-Q-G-R*L117 lentogenic motif for the pigeon isolate. Both isolates were found to be 84.1% related phylogenetically, while fowl isolate clustered with genotype XIII, the pigeon isolate clustered with genotype II and vaccine strains of APMV-1. This is the first instance of APMV-1 characterization in the region with the possibility of a vaccine spill over in pigeons.</div>

<div style="text-align: justify;">Molecular and Virulence Characterization of Newcastle Disease Virus in Fowls and Pigeons From Jammu, India</div>

<div style="text-align: justify;">The aim of this study was to investigate the macroanatomy and histology of the caecum in guinea fowl using light and scanning electron microscopy. Six adult male and six adult female guinea fowl were used as the study material. The cavum abdominis of the animals was opened under anaesthesia, and the caeca uncovered. The height and thickness of the villi were smaller in the apex and corpus caeca than in the basis caeci. The SEM image of the guinea fowl caeca showed that the villi send finger like extensions into the lumen, and the height of the villi towards the basis caeca increases and exhibits a tight structure.Thus, in this study, the anatomy and histology of guinea fowl caeca were examined in detail using light and scanning electron microscopy, and the similarities and differences with the caeca of other poultry species were investigated.</div>

Macroanatomical and histological study of caecum of the guinea fowl (<em>Numida meleagris</em>) using light and scanning electron microscopy

<div><strong>Background:</strong> Ceftiofur is a third-generation cephalosporin antibiotic developed exclusively for veterinary applications. Although not approved in China, ceftiofur is being used extensively in an extra-label manner to treat poultry infections. Black-bone silky fowl is a unique chicken breed which is different from the common chicken breeds in both morphology and other physiology. These differences may result in varied pharmacokinetic profiles. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the pharmacokinetics of ceftiofur (measured by ceftiofur and its active metabolites concentrations) in black-bone silky fowl following a single intravenous or intramuscular injection of ceftiofur sodium.<br />
<br />
<strong>Methods: </strong>Ceftiofur sodium was intravenously and intramuscularly given to six healthy black-bone silky fowl at the dose of 10 mg/kg body weight. A derivatization method was used to quantify the concentrations of ceftiofur and its active metabolites (expressed as desfuroylceftiofur acetamide) in plasma samples. A non-compartmental method was used to calculate the pharmacokinetics parameters. &nbsp;<br />
<br />
<strong>Results: </strong>The terminal half-life (t1/2lz) was calculated as 3.19&plusmn;0.28 and 3.36&plusmn;0.17 h following intravenous and intramuscular injections, respectively. After intravenous treatment, the total body clearance (Cl) and volume of distribution at steady state (VSS) were determined as 73.79&plusmn;5.83 ml/h/kg and 318.65&plusmn;30.06 ml/kg, respectively. After intramuscular injection, the peak concentration (Cmax; 22.55&plusmn;0.89 &igrave;g/ml) was observed at 1.67&plusmn;0.26 h and the absorption half-life (t1/2ka) and absolute bioavailability (F) were calculated as 0.40&plusmn;0.13 h and 93.03%&plusmn;7.07%, respectively. The current results demonstrated the rapid and complete absorption, however, poor distribution and rapid elimination of ceftiofur and its active metabolites in black-bone silky fowl.</div>


<div>Pharmacokinetics of Ceftiofur Sodium in Black-bone Silky Fowl after One Single Intravenous and Intramuscular Injection</div>


<div><strong>Background: </strong>Kidneys, the paired organ which essentially plays for excreting nitrogenous wastes, excessive water, inorganic salts and toxic substances produced during the process of body metabolism. Maintenance of osmotic regulation and homeostatic fluid balance of the body has also be performed by kidneys. Each of the kidneys filtrate carried to cloaca by respective ureter from where the urine leaves the body. The present macroscopic, histomorphological and histochemical studies undertaken on the Kidneys of Guinea fowl (<em>Numida meleagris</em>) is nothing but the attempt to widen our thrust area for that bird which is nonexistent as on documentation.<br />
<br />
<strong>Methods: </strong>The present studies were carried upon 12 pairs of <em>in-vitro</em> kidney samples in Guinea fowl. Gross morphology and morphometrical observations were carried on fresh specimens. Histological studies were carried on fixed samples those were processed for dehydration, clearing, embedding into paraffin and sections of 5-6 &mu; thickness were obtained. Different staining procedure as to Haematoxylin and Eosin, Silver orcein, Aniline blue and Weigert&rsquo;s staining methods were employed for different histological components. The histochemical and histoenzymic studies were also accomplished with Periodic acid Schiff&lsquo;s (PAS), Alcian blue methods (pH-2.5) and Gomori&rsquo;s cobalt method for Alkaline phosphatase and Acid phosphatase. The Succinic dehydrogenase enzyme was also estimated on cryostat sections.<br />
<br />
<strong>Result: </strong>The observations on kidneys of Guinea fowl were accomplished after macroscopic, histomorphological and histochemical means. This reddish-brown colored paired organ of kidneys was retroperitoneally placed in synsacral fossa and had incomplete division of three parts. The wrapping material of capsule was the dense connective tissue. The outer cortex and inner medulla had different parts of nephrons. Two types of nephrons <em>viz</em>. mammalian type (with Henle loop) and reptilian type (without Henle loop) were observed. Collagen, elastic and reticular fibers were there in different components of the kidney. Histochemically it has determined the secretion of neutral as well as acidic mucopolysaccharide substances. PAS activity was observed at mesangial cells and basement membrane of DCT. The Alkaline phosphatase showed the positive activity in capsule, brush border of proximal and distal convoluted tubules. The Acid phosphatases were showing intense activity in parietal and visceral layer of renal corpuscles, lumen and basement membrane of PCT. The intense activity of Succinic dehydrogenase showed at PCT, DCT, collecting tubule whereas renal corpuscles showed feeble activity.</div>


<div>Macroscopic, Histomorphological and Histochemical Studies on the Kidneys of Guinea Fowl (<em>Numida meleagris</em>)</div>


<div><strong>Background: </strong>Pregnancy involves complex biological interaction and communication between the developing conceptus and maternal uterus, which may alter the blood cellular elements. The present investigation evaluated the hematological changes associated with pregnancy in domestic sows.&nbsp;<br />
<br />
<strong>Methods:</strong> Blood samples were collected by auricular venipuncture from twenty sexually mature domestic sows from four pig farms. Hematological analyses were carried out on the blood samples following standard procedures.&nbsp;<br />
<br />
<strong>Result:</strong> The mean packed cell volume (PCV), the red blood cell (RBC) count, hemoglobin (Hb) concentration, mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH), mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC) and absolute lymphocyte count were higher during pregnancy and lower following parturition, whereas, the mean corpuscular volume (MCV) was lower during pregnancy and declined further following parturition. The mean total white blood cell (TWBC) count and the absolute neutrophil count were higher during pregnancy and further elevated postpartum while the absolute monocyte count was lower during pregnancy and elevated postpartum. The absolute eosinophil count was significantly (p &lt; 0.05) lower in the pregnant sows (0.35 &plusmn; 0.13) and postpartum sows (0.21 &plusmn; 0.15) than in the non-pregnant sows (1.06 &plusmn; 0.27). These hematological alterations could assist in monitoring the physiological and health status of the dam, fetuses and pregnancy diagnosis.</div>


<div>Hematological Changes Associated with Pregnancy in Domestic Sows (<em>Suis domesticus</em>)</div>


<div><strong>Background:</strong> The proventriculus, component of digestive system of bird secretes hydrochloric acid and pepsinogen which helps the churning of food material that takes place in ventriculus. Pepsinogen produces pepsin and it smashes the peptide bonds of amino acid of food material.&nbsp;<br />
<br />
<strong>Methods:</strong> The twelve proventriculus samples of Guinea fowl birds were fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin and Bouin&rsquo;s fluid for &nbsp;histological procedure while chilled acetone and chilled ethanol were used as the fixatives for histochemical studies. The fresh unfixed samples were used on cryostat for studies of succinic dehydrogenase enzyme.<br />
<br />
<strong>Result:</strong> Histomorphologically the proventriculus of Guinea fowl was observed as the typical tubular component with four tunics from inside to outside as tunica mucosa, tunica sub mucosa, tunica muscularis and tunica serosa. The submucosal layer comprised with proventricular submucosal gland (PVSMG) which was encapsulated by elastic fibers. Tunica muscularis was inner longitudinal and outer circular layer, while the tunica serosa was observed with surrounding adipose tissue as the connective tissue constituent to endow the access of nutritional supply in the form of blood vessels. The luminal surface of proventricular submucosal glands has shown the significant activity of glycogen while intercalated, intralobular and interlobular ducts have exhibited the weak activity towards the same. The glandular cell rod of PVSMG, serosal layer and adjoining connective tissue with blood vessels has exhibited very weak activity of alkaline phosphatase. Mucosal folds and lumen of PVSMG has shown the weak activity of acidic phosphatase but the serosal limiting membrane has shown very weak activity.&nbsp;The succinic dehydrogenase activity was seen in the connective tissue septa of submucosal glandular cellular rods and the intense activity was observed at tunica muscularis.</div>


<div>Histomorphological and Histochemical Studies on Proventriculus in Guinea Fowl (<em>Numida meleagris</em>)</div>


<div><strong>Background: </strong>Fowl cholera is a highly fatal, contagious bacterial disease that incurs significant economic loss in commercial as well as back-yard poultry. Vaccination is the most effective way in controlling this disease. In this study, we prepared and evaluated the immunogenicity of iron-inactivated<em> Pasteurella multocida</em> A:1 vaccine and its protective efficacy against fowl cholera experimental infection in backyard chicken.<br />
<br />
<strong>Methods:</strong> Scaled up <em>Pasteurella multocida </em>A:1 culture with 5 x 108 CFU/ml equivalent to 2.5 mg of antigen per dose was used for preparation of experimental vaccines. Formalin inactivated and mixed with APS adjuvant (FIA), formalin inactivated-Freund adjuvant (FIF), Iron inactivated and adjuvanted with iron (III), Iron inactivated from iron supplemented media and adjuvanted with iron (ISII) and commercial oil emulsion vaccine (CV) were used in the study. A total of 120 Vanaraja birds (n=20/group) of 2 weeks age were immunized with these vaccine and booster were given at 3<sup>rd</sup> and 6<sup>th </sup>week with respective vaccine. Specific antibody titers were assessed by iELISA in the serum at weekly intervals. The birds were challenged (n=6/group) with 5x10<sup>4</sup> CFU/ml of virulent isolate by intraperitoneal route and morbidity, mortality percentage were observed.<br />
<br />
<strong>Result:</strong> Protective antibody titers were induced by iron inactivated vaccine from 4<sup>th</sup> week of immunization and upon booster doses it induced significantly higher (P&lt;0.05) antibody response. The iron inactivated experimental vaccine gave equivalent protection as that of commercial vaccine upon challenge infection.</div>


<div>Immunogenicity and Protective Efficacy of Iron-inactivated <em>Pasteurella multocida</em> A:1 Vaccine against Fowl Cholera in Backyard Chicken</div>


Comparative morphological studies of the pelvic limb bones in ostrich (Struthio camelus), emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae), domestic fowl (Gallus gallus domesticus) and duck (Anas platyrhynchos domesticus)

China as a Center of Origin and Domestication of Chicken: A Review

Macro and Micro anatomical study of Harderian Gland of Duck and Fowl

Molecular and Virulence Characterization of Newcastle Disease Virus in Fowls and Pigeons From Jammu, India

Macroanatomical and histological study of caecum of the guinea fowl (Numida meleagris) using light and scanning electron microscopy

Pharmacokinetics of Ceftiofur Sodium in Black-bone Silky Fowl after One Single Intravenous and Intramuscular Injection

Macroscopic, Histomorphological and Histochemical Studies on the Kidneys of Guinea Fowl (Numida meleagris)

Hematological Changes Associated with Pregnancy in Domestic Sows (Suis domesticus)

Histomorphological and Histochemical Studies on Proventriculus in Guinea Fowl (Numida meleagris)

Immunogenicity and Protective Efficacy of Iron-inactivated Pasteurella multocida A:1 Vaccine against Fowl Cholera in Backyard Chicken