<div>Background: Cryptosporidiosis is an emerging zoonotic protozoan disease caused by Cryptosporidium spp. The infection was reported worldwide from domestic animals and humans, including wild animals. From India, no such reports were published on Cryptosporidium infection in captive wildlife. Hence, a pilot study was conducted to report the occurrence of Cryptosporidium infection in captive wildlife of India.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: Faecal samples (n=788) were collected from 127 captive wildlife species of three zoological parks viz., Sri Venkateswara Zoological Park (SVZP), Tirupati (n=242); Indira Gandhi Zoological Park (IGZP), Visakhapatnam (n=218); Nehru Zoological Park (NZP), Hyderabad (n=328) and screened for Cryptosporidium infection. Preliminary screening of faecal samples was done for the detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts by modified Ziehl-Neelsen (mZN) staining method and the test positives were confirmed by nested PCR targeting 18S rRNA gene. Nested PCR amplicons were sequenced for determining the Cryptosporidium species. The resultant data were statistically analyzed by Fisher/Chi square, Fisher Exact test using SPSS software v 17.0. 
 
Result: In mZN staining method, 7.23 percent of isolates were found to be positive for Cryptosporidium and the highest rate of infection was detected in wildlife at NZP, Hyderabad (8.23%), followed by SVZP, Tirupati (7.44%) and IGZP, Visakhapatnam (5.50%). Cryptosporidium positive faecal samples by mZN staining were further confirmed by nested PCR and positive amplicons were sequenced for determination of Cryptosporidium species. Genetic characterization revealed five species viz., Cryptosporidium parvum; C. ryanae, C. suis, C. muris and Cryptosporidium avian genotype III. The study conclude that, Cryptosporidium infection was prevalent in the captive wildlife from the zoological parks of India and species variation was marked among the wildlife. Based on the available literature, the current study is the first of its kind on the prevalence of Cryptosporidium in captive wildlife from India.</div>

<div>Isolation and Genetic Characterization of Cryptosporidium from Captive Wildlife of India</div>

<div style="text-align: justify;">Fish samples of Indian hill trout Barilius bendelisis, were collected from the Gaula river (290 17&rsquo; 25&rsquo;&rsquo; N Latitude, 790 32&rsquo; 143&rsquo;&rsquo; E) and reared in captive condition at Directorate of Coldwater Fisheries Research, Bhimtal (29021&acute; N, 79034&acute; E, altitude 1370 m MSL).Gonadosomatic index was found maximum in May for females (13.24 &plusmn; 0.92) and males (1.13 &plusmn; 0.07) respectively indicating a single spawning period of this species under captivity. Absolute fecundity (total number of eggs) varied from 320 to 4000. The average absolute fecundity was 1661 &plusmn; 304.6 at a total length 10.07 &plusmn; 0.30 cm and body weight of 11.92 &plusmn; 1.23 g. Histological study of the ovary &nbsp;revealed the presence of oocytes at different stages of maturity with a maximum number of the mature oocytes during April to May. &nbsp;Results of the present investigation suggest that B. bendelisis belongs to a category of low fecund fish and spawns during April and May under captive condition.&nbsp;</div>

<div style="text-align:justify">Ovarian maturation and histological observations of Barilius bendelisis (Hamilton) in captivity</div>

<div>Background: Infections with gastrointestinal parasites are widespread and a major health issue for captive birds. Despite the significance being well known, not much studies have been conducted on its prevalence especially in captive avians in a zoo setup. The present study aims at determining the prevalence of parasites in captive birds of different orders maintained at Bannerghatta Biological Park, Bengaluru, Karnataka. 
 
Methods: In this investigation, a survey through fecal sample examination was conducted to assess the parasitic infection in captive birds belonging to 6 different biological orders e.g. Casuariiformes, Anseriformes, Galliformes, Pelecaniformes, Psittaciformes {Emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae), Duck (Anas platyrhynchos), Peafowl (Pavo cristatus), red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus), grey pelican, (Pelecanus philippensis), purple heron (Ardea purpurea), silver pheasant (Lophura nycthemera), macaw (Ara ararauna), parakeet (Psittacula eupatsia)} and Ciconiiformes maintained at Bannerghatta Biological Park, Bengaluru, Karnataka. A total of 106 fecal samples from apparently healthy birds including 7 samples from emu, 3 ducks, 12 peafowls, 8 red jungle fowls, 24 grey pelicans, 1 purple heron, 13 silver pheasants, 8 macaws, 26 parakeets and 4 Indian open-billed storks were collected during 2015-2016 and were screened for parasitic eggs/oocysts.&nbsp; 
 
Result: The screening result could detect ova of 2 (28.57%) Eimeria oocyst in emu, 3 (100%) Eimeria oocyst in duck, 7 (58.33%) Capillaria sp., 3 (25%) Eimeria oocyst, 2 (16.66%) Ascardia galli, 2 (16.66%) Raillietina echinobothrida, 1 (8.33%) Tetrameres sp. in peafowls, 3 (37.5%) Ascardia galli, 1 (12.5%) Eimeria oocyst in red jungle fowls, 5 (20.83%) Ascardia galli in grey pelican, 1 (100%) trematode ova in purple heron, 3 (23.07%) Raillietina sp., 2 (15.38%) Eimeria ocyst in silver pheasant, 2 (25%) Ascaris sp. in macaw, 12 (46.15%) Ascaris sp., 3 (11.53%) Eimeria oocyst in parakeet and 4 (100%) Tetrameres sp. in Indian open-billed storks.</div>

​A Copro-parasitological Surveillance on Diverse Captive Wild Avian Species

<div style="text-align: justify;">The study describes, for the first time, captive breeding, embryonic and larval development of Barilius bendelisis. The captive breeding trial was carried out in April, in fish farm of Directorate of Coldwater Fisheries Research (DCFR), Bhimtal, India using differnet doses of &nbsp;ovatide. The most appropriate dose of ovatide was reported to be 0.3 ml/kg body weight to males and 0.6 ml/kg body weight to females. Fertilized eggs measuring 1.4-1.7 mm were spherical, demersal, and transparent with dark yellow coloured yolk. Hatching occurred 140 -160 hours after fertilization at 19.09&deg;C &plusmn; 0.395. &nbsp;Newly hatched larvae were transparent with yellowish yolk reserve, measuring 5.57 - 6.71 mm in total length and characterized by pigmented eye and yolk sac which completely absorbed in 72 hours.&nbsp;</div>

First attempt of captive breeding, embryonic and larval development of Barilius bendelisis (Hamilton 1807)&nbsp;

<div style="text-align: justify;">The present report describes the work conducted on captive wild animals (n =42) &nbsp;between 1 &ndash; 15 years of age, during a period of one year to know the prevalence and chemotherapeutic management of gastrointestinal parasites from the captive facility of &nbsp;Rajiv Gandhi Zoological Park and Wildlife Animal Research Center, Katraj, Pune, Maharashtra. Fecal samples of the animals were analyzed by use of classical parasitological techniques including sedimentation and floatation and quantitative Mc Master egg counting technique. Out of the total (n=42) fecal samples screened 17 (40.50%; 95% CI 25.3-54.7%)) samples were positive for gastrointestinal parasitic infection. The prevalence of nematodes was highest (70.58%), followed by cestodes (23.52%) and coccidia (5.80%). No trematode infection was seen in the present study. The eggs/oocysts of seven different types of intestinal parasites viz., strongyle, coccidia, Toxocara spp., Trichuris spp., Capillaria spp., Diphylidium spp. and Moniezia spp., &nbsp;were observed with an intensity of + to +++ and eggs/oocysts &nbsp;per gram of faeces as 850&plusmn;585.15 in the current study. All the positive cases were administered with albendazole @ 20mg/kg body weight orally in the feed. Fecal samples of all animals were found negative for developmental stages after 15 days of treatment. Out of total 40.47 % (95% CI 25.3-54.7%) infected animals, 58.82 % animals were found infected with single infection while 41.14 % showed mixed infection. The copro-prevalence of single and mixed gastrointestinal parasites without overt clinical signs of disease or mortality as observed in the study is suggestive of subclinical infection.</div>

<div style="text-align: justify;">Parasitological surveillance and successful treatment of gastrointestinal parasites of captive wild animals with albendazole in a zoological collection</div>

<div>Background: &nbsp;Blood gas and acid base values are very much essential for health assessment and disease diagnosis of captive elephants especially when clinical signs were nonspecific and other diagnostic techniques may not be available for immediate applications. Region specific normal healthy animal profile is valuable in health care planning for captive elephants. The aim of this study was to assess and evolve the baseline reference values for Blood gas and acid base parameters in captive Asian elephants raised in the Tamil Nadu State of India. 
 
Methods: A total of 46 venous blood samples were analyzed for blood gas and acid base values such as partial pressure of oxygen (PvCO2), partial pressure of carbon-dioxide (PvO2), oxygen saturation (SvO2), total carbon dioxide content (TvCO2), Bicarbonate and Base excess (BEecf), bicarbonate (HCO3-) and pH by using i-STAT&reg;1 hand held analyzer. 
 
Results: The mean&plusmn;SE, lower and upper value, 95% and 99% of confidence interval of the pH, PvCo2, PvO2, TvCo2, BEecf, HCO3- , SvO2, Lactate were assessed. As the elephants in this study were apparently healthy, these range of values could well serve as a reference range for captive Asian elephants.</div>

Venous Blood Gas and Acid-base Values in Captive Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus)

<div>Background: Serum electrolyte monitoring is essential in the health assessment of captive elephants. The major elements of calcium, sodium, potassium, chloride and bicarbonate are playing a major role in regulation of nerve and muscle functions and in maintaining acid base and water balance. Excess levels or loss of particular electrolytes may occur as secondary changes caused by certain diseases or changes in physiological regulations. The aim of this study was to evolve the baseline reference values for serum electrolyte levels in captive Asian elephants raised in Tamil Nadu state of India.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: As part of the periodical health assessment blood samples were collected from auricular vein for 42 apparently healthy captive Asian elephants in Tamil Nadu, India. Serum electrolyte levels such as sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), chloride (Cl-), ionized calcium (iCa), non-ionized calcium and total calcium (tCa) were determined by using an automated electrolyte analyzer.&nbsp; 
 
Result: Most of the ranges of electrolyte values observed in this study were similar to that of previous reports. As not much studies on ionized calcium are available on captive Asian elephants the value of ionized calcium found this study 1.16&plusmn;0.13 mmol/L could serve as reference. There was no much variation observed in various age groups. This electrolyte profile values will serve as baseline values to evaluate the health and clinical conditions of captive elephant populations.</div>

Ionized Calcium and Serum Electrolytes Profile in Captive Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus) of Tamil Nadu, India

<div>Background: Captive Indian leopards are exposed to different kind of stresses part of which can be alleviated through supplementation of carotenoids. However, invasive monitoring of antioxidants is often pro-act as a stressor itself. Hence, use of non-invasive monitoring of antioxidants and stress would be desirable. However, before recommendation, such non-invasive procedures must be compared with conventional ones. Hence, this experiment was designed to compare the cortisol and total antioxidants (TAA) status measured either in serum or faecal samples.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: Three diets were tested on twelve adult leopards (7 M and 5 F, BW ranging from 45-63 kg) in an experiment based on replicated Latin square design comprising of three treatments, three periods and three sequences and four animals in each sequence. The ratio of buffalo meat: chicken carcass was 100:0, 90:10 and 80:10 in groups CON, GI and GII, respectively.&nbsp; 
 
Result: Intake and absolute quantity of carotenoids absorbed increased (P&lt;0.01) with increased level of chicken carcass; however, efficiency of absorption was lower (P&lt;0.05) in GII as compared to other two groups. Faecal concentrations of cortisol decreased (P&lt;0.0001) and TAA increased (P&lt;0.0001) with increased level of carotenoids in the diet. Irrespective of the dietary treatments, concentration of cortisol was lower (P&lt;0.0001) and TAA was higher in faecal as compared to serum samples. Regression analysis revealed positive relationship between serum and faecal sample assay with respect to both TAA and cortisol. Thus, faecal samples could be used to monitor cortisol and antioxidant status in Indian leopards. Assay of faecal samples indicated that replacement of buffalo meat with chicken at 20% in the diet improved the antioxidants and alleviated stress in captive leopards.&nbsp;</div>

Non-invasive Monitoring of Antioxidants and Stress in Captive Indian Leopards

Background: With remarkable growth in aquaculture, the need for system diversification and species diversification has been demanded by the producers to gain fruitful output in terms of profit. Striped murrel, Channa striata has been identified as a suitable species for modern aquaculture systems in terms of species diversification due to their fast growth rate, air-breathing nature, higher market price and consumer acceptance. The major bottlenecks in seed production of murrel are captive maturation and short spawning window. To overcome these problems, an attempt was made to achieve early gonadal maturity of striped murrel in captive conditions by intervening in the brooder rearing habitat.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: In this regard, four habitats were tested in duplicates, namely T1 - Tank with clean reservoir water without macrophytes and soil base, T2 - Tanks provided with floating (Water hyacinth, Eichhornia sp) and submerged (Waterthyme, Hydrilla sp) aquatic macrophytes without any soil base, T3- Tanks provided with only soil base (15-20 cm) without any macrophytes and T4 - Tanks provided with both soil base and macrophytes.&nbsp; 
 
Result: At the end of the three-months rearing phase, the fishes provided with macrophytes and soil base (T4) resulted in early maturation characterized by an egg size of around 1.29&plusmn;0.21 mm and the majority of late granular stage oocytes and spermatozoa in ovary and testes, respectively. The results concluded that providing a bottom soil base of 15-20 cm and covering the 20-30% water spread area using aquatic macrophytes in the brood rearing tank helped in the gonadal maturation of striped murrel during pre-monsoon in captive conditions.&nbsp;

The Effect of Habitat Manipulation on Early Gonad Maturation of Channa striata in Captive Condition

<div>Background: Escherichia coli is one of the intestinal microbiota in wildlife as in domestic animals and humans. The prevalent serogroups, pathogenic strains like STEC, EPEC and antimicrobial resistance is less frequently studied in captive wildlife of India. The present study was aimed to study the prevalence of STEC, EPEC and antimicrobial resistant E. coli from captive wild animals in a zoo in Kolkata, India.&nbsp; 
&nbsp; 
Methods: This study was done during March 2019 to June 2019 for E. coli from faecal samples of captive wild birds and mammals. The pathotypes STEC and EPEC were detected for the presence of stx1, stx2 and eae virulence genes, respectively. Extended spectrum beta- lactamases, ampC beta-lactamases production and antimicrobial susceptibility were detected by standard phenotypic methods.&nbsp; 
 
Result: In this study, some E.coli isolates were found harbouring genes for ETEC and EPEC. Extended spectrum beta- lactamases and ampC beta-lactamases were produced by some isolates. Most E. coli isolates were detected multidrug-resistant but were mostly sensitive to gentamicin and amikacin. This study demonstrated that captive wild animals harbour potentially pathogenic E. coli that were resistant for many antimicrobials.</div>

​Prevalence of Shigatoxigenic, Enteropathogenic and Antimicrobial Drug Resistant Escherichia coli from Captive Wild Animals of Alipore Zoo, Kolkata, India