Background: Tiletamine-zolazepam is a combination of dissociative anaesthetic with benzodiazepine agent. It is an injectable anaesthetic agent which is either used alone or in combination with other anaesthetic drugs. The objective of this study is to evaluate the anaesthetic effects of tiletamine-zolazepam alone and in combination with xylazine and xylazine-ketamine in dogs. 
 
Methods: Eighteen dogs irrespective of age, breed, sex and body weight (requiring various surgical corrections) were randomly divided into three groups viz., A, B and C. Atropine sulphate (0.025mg/kg SC) was administered in all the groups followed by tiletamine-zolazepam (till effect IV) in group A, xylazine (0.5 mg/kg IM) and tiletamine-zolazepam (till effect IV) in group B and xylazine (0.5 mg/kg IM), ketamine (2.5 mg/kg IV) and tiletamine-zolazepam (till effect IV) in group C. A gap of 10 minutes was kept between administration of each drug. The efficacy of the anaesthesia was evaluated by observing clinico-physiological parameters i.e. induction dose, induction time, duration of anaesthesia, sternal recumbency time, complete recovery time, jaw relaxation score, pedal reflex score, palpebral reflex score (PLR), heart rate (HR), respiration rate (RR), rectal temperature, capillary refill time (CRT), systolic arterial pressure, diastolic arterial pressure, mean arterial pressure and haemoglobin oxygen saturation. These clinico-physiological parameters were evaluated at different time intervals i.e. 0, 10, 15, 25, 35, 45, 60, 75, 90 and 105 minutes. 
 
Result: The induction dose of tiletamine-zolazepam observed in group A, B and C were 6.5, 5.5 and 4.0 mg/kg body weight, respectively on intravenous administration. Analgesia and muscle relaxation was observed slightly better in group C in comparison to group A and B. Heart rate increased and respiration rate decreased post induction in all three groups. Tiletamine-zolazepam with its fast and smooth induction, intermediate duration of action, excellent muscle relaxation and good compatibility with xylazine and ketamine, was found to be an effective general anaesthetic either alone or in combination. Group C with xylazine, ketamine and tiletamine-zolazepam combination required significantly lower induction dose and provided longer duration of anaesthesia in comparison to group A and B.Combining xylazine and xylazine-ketamine as pre-medicants at sub-anaesthetic doses reduced the induction dose of tiletamine-zolazepam, provided longer duration of anaesthesia, good muscle relaxation and stable physiological parameters.&nbsp;

Anaesthetic Evaluation of Various Combinations of Xylazine, Ketamine and Tiletamine-zolazepam in Dogs

<div>Background: Endotracheal intubation for inhalation anaesthesia in pigs is not considered a good anaesthetic method as it is technically difficult because of oral anatomy and the presence of excess tissues in the oropharyngeal region. Moreover, the major limitation of inhalation anaesthesia is that it requires the use of a cumbersome and costly anaesthetic machine, including a suitable breathing system and vaporizer and is the exposure of operating-room personnel to the pollution in the ambient air. Therefore, the present study was undertaken to evaluate the effect of propofol, ketamine and their combination &lsquo;Ketofol&rsquo; as a TIVA in pigs. 
 
Methods: The study was conducted in eighteen piglets of either sex. The piglets were randomly divided into three groups with six animals in each group. All the three groups were premedicated with Atropine sulphate @ 0.04mg/kg body weight and Xylazine Hydrochloride @ 1mg/kg body weight I.M. and Medazolam @ 0.5mg/kg body weight I.M. with minimum forcible restraint as pre-anaesthetic. In group-I, propofol @ 5mg/kg body weight, in group-II, ketamine @ 5mg/kg body weight and in group-III, ketofol @ 4mg/kg body weight was administered intravenously for induction after 15 minutes of pre-anaesthetic administration. Surgical anaesthesia was maintained for 90 minutes in all three groups viz. group-I, group-II and group-III with propofol @ 2.5mg/kg, ketamine @ 2.5mg/kg and ketofol @ 2mg/kg body weight respectively by intermittent bolus injection (IBI) technique. Clinical and cardiopulmonary profiles were evaluated before administration of the anaesthetic agent (0 minutes) then at 15, 30, 60 and 90 minutes during and after administration of anaesthetic agents to evaluate their anaesthetic effect. 
 
Result: The study revealed that induction time (IT), duration of analgesia (DOA), duration of recumbency (DOR) and recovery time (RT) interval showed better result in the combination of ketamine and propofol group as compared to propofol and ketamine-induced individual group. The temperature and respiration rate was significantly decreased in all the groups at 30 minutes during TIVA whereas heart rate was significantly increased in all the groups at 15 minutes. The combination of ketamine and propofol group showed a consistent diastolic pressure and systolic pressure during the entire period of anaesthesia. The SPO2 in the ketamine-induced group showed a significant decrease (P&lt;0.01) as compared to the propofol and ketofol group. It was concluded that the anaesthetic drug combinations resulted in smooth and uneventful induction with mild cardiopulmonary depressions and rapid recovery.</div>

Anaesthetic Effects of Propofol, Ketamine and their Combination (Ketofol) as Total Intravenous Anaesthesia (TIVA) in Pigs

Background: Propofol is intravenous short acting general anaesthetic most popular drug for induction and maintenance of anaesthesia in veterinary practice due to its rapid induction and smooth recovery. However, as sole general anaesthetic, it is unsatisfactory because of its poor analgesic property and causing hypotension and apnoea. Therefore, it commonly used in combination with opioid or alpha 2 agonist to minimize the untoward effects. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the sedative, analgesic and anaesthetic efficacy of propofol in combination with butorphanol, dexmedetomidine or acepromazine premedication in dogs. 
 
Methods: The present study was conducted on 18 healthy adult dogs of either sex and randomly divided into three groups (ButP, DexP and AceP) with six animals in each. Glycopyrrolate @ 0.02 mg/kg was administered intramuscularly 10 minutes prior to the anaesthetic administration in all the dogs. The animals of group ButP, DexP and AceP were premedicated intramuscularly with butorphanol @ 0.3 mg/kg b.wt., dexmedetomidine @ 10 &micro;g/kg b.wt. and acepromazine @ 0.4 mg/kg b.wt. respectively. Ten minutes later propofol was injected intravenously at a dose of 7 mg/kg b.wt. to induce general anesthesia. The following clinical parameters were recorded viz., onset of sedation, onset of anaesthesia, degree of analgesia, extent of muscle relaxation, duration of anaesthesia and complete recovery. All the data were analyzed using SPSS v 25.0 statistics software program and presented as mean&plusmn;Standard Error. 
 
Result: The onset of sedation and induction of anaesthesia was earlier in group DexP followed by AceP and ButP. Group DexP exhibited significantly (P&lt;0.05) longer duration of anaesthesia and complete recovery than groups ButP and AceP. All the groups had excellent analgesia; however animals of group DexP showed longer duration of analgesia. All the reflexes were abolished completely with longer duration of muscle relaxation in group DexP. The above anaesthetic study suggests that propofol in combination with dexmedetomidine; butorphanol or acepromazine can be safely used for inducing surgical anaesthesia in dogs. However, dexmedetomidine-propofol combination produced prolonged duration of anaesthesia with better quality suitable for long surgical procedure in dogs.

Sedative, Analgesic and Anaesthetic Evaluation of Propofol in Combination with Butorphanol, Dexmedetomidine and Acepromazine in Clinically Healthy Dogs

<div>Background:&nbsp;Nearly all anaesthetic agent decreases renal and hepatic blood flow, so anaesthetic agents should be selected properly in patients particularly with pre-existing renal and hepatic impairment. The present study conducted to evaluate the effect of acepromazine, midazolam and dexmedetomidine as pre-anaesthetic agent followed by induction with propofol and maintenance with isoflurane on kidney and liver function of client-owned female dogs undergoing elective ovariohysterectomy. 
 
Methods:&nbsp;Thirty-two clinically healthy female dogs were randomly divided into four groups with ten animals in the groups A and B and six animals in groups C and D for elective ovariohysterectomy. Animals were premedicated with acepromazine-butorphanol in group A, midazolam-butorphanol in group B, dexmedetomidine (I/M)- butorphanol in group C and dexmedetomidine (I/V)- butorphanol in group D. Animals in all four groups were induced (till effect) with propofol and maintained with isoflurane.&nbsp; 
 
Result: All the groups showed non-significant marginal decline in BUN and serum creatinine at 5 minutes after pre-medication. Serum AST and ALT were non-significant decreased in groups A and B and non-significant increase in groups C and D during observations. Serum albumin and globulin gradually but non-significantly decrease in group A after premedication to T20 during anesthesia with isoflurane, then gradually increase upto extubation, but values remained lower in comparison to base values.</div>

Effects of Anaesthetic Protocol on Kidney and Liver Function of Female Dogs undergoing Ovariohysterectomy

Background: The present study was conducted to evaluate the anaesthetic efficacy of butorphanol, dexmedetomidine or acepromazine in combination with thiopentone sodium for inducing general anaesthesia in healthy dogs. 
 
Methods: Eighteen adult dogs of either sex were randomly divided into three groups (ButTHIO, DexTHIO and AceTHIO) with six animals in each. Ten minutes prior to the anaesthetic administration, all the dogs were administered with glycopyrrolate @ 0.02 mg/kg I/M. The animals of group ButTHIO, DexTHIO and AceTHIO were premedicated intramuscularly with butorphanol @ 0.3 mg/kg b.wt., dexmedetomidine @ 10 &micro;g/kg b.wt. and acepromazine @ 0.4 mg/kg b.wt. respectively. General anaesthesia was induced with thiopentone sodium @ 18 mg/kg b.wt. intravenously. Onset of sedation and anaesthesia, degree of analgesia, extent of muscle relaxation, duration of anaesthesia, complete recovery from anaesthesia and different reflexes were recorded for evaluation of anaesthetic efficacy. 
 
Result: The onset of sedation and induction of anaesthesia was quicker in group DexTHIO followed by AceTHIO and ButTHIO. Duration of anaesthesia and complete recovery were significantly (P&lt;0.05) longer in group DexTHIO as compared to group ButTHIO and AceTHIO. Analgesia was excellent in all the groups but persisted for longer duration in animals of group DexTHIO. All the reflexes abolished completely with longer duration of muscle relaxation in group DexTHIO. It could be concluded that thiopentone sodium in combination with either dexmedetomidine or butorphanol or acepromazine can be used safely for inducing surgical anaesthesia in dogs. However, dexmedetomidine-thiopentone combination produced prolonged duration of anaesthesia with better quality for long surgical procedure in dogs.

Comparative Anaesthetic Evaluation of Butorphanol, Dexmedetomidine or Acepromazine in Combination with Thiopentone Sodium for Inducing General Anaesthesia in Healthy Dogs

The objective of study was to assess the quality of analgesia and record the alteration in anaesthetic indices following lumbosacral administration of lignocaine alone @ 4 mg/kg body weight in group I and its combination with butorphanol@ 0.04 mgkg body weight in group II. Onset of analgesia in both groups was evident at 5 min and reached to peak level at 15 minutes of observation. The incoordination and sedation was more marked in butorphanol groups as compared to lignocaine groups. The onset of analgesia was delayed in group II as compared to group I, whereas, duration of analgesia and standing time was significantly higher (P&lt;0.05) in group II as compared to group I. Time to recumbency did not revealed significant variation between groups. It is concluded that lignocaine alone and in-combination produced satisfactory onset of analgesia but it remained longer time in lignocaine &ndash; butorphanol group (group II) with respect to duration of analgesia and time to standing. However, this combination also showed the marked sedation and incoordination. Hence, butorphanol in combination with lignocaine was considered better for producing analgesia for longer duration operative procedure.

Anaesthetic evaluation of lignocaine alone and in-combination with butorphanol in goats

Background: Dystocia in dairy animals remains major concern causing huge economical losses of farmers. Over the past years, field veterinarian relieves dystocia via maneuvering, fetotomy, modified Schaffers and cesarean methods under local or regional anaesthesia which is always stressful and painful procedure leading to excessive tissue damage. Considering the involved stress and further conception during relieving dystocia under local or regional anaesthesia is always questionable. Hence, the present study was aimed to relieve dystocia in buffalo without stress by improving gentle handling of uterus during cesarean or obstetrical method under the anaesthetic combination of xylazine-ketamine-guaifenesin under field condition.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: The present study was undertaken in twelve clinical cases of buffaloes with history of dystocia irrespective of age and breed and they were sedated with xylazine and subjected to obstetrical or cesarean procedure under ketamine and guaifenesin anaesthetic protocol. 
 
Result: Twelve buffaloes with average age between 3-8 years and body weight 389.66&plusmn;19.56 kg reported to hospital and amongst them eight were primiparous. Among maternal dystocia, uterine torsion was most common followed by incomplete cervical dilation whereas in foetal dystocia, malpositioned foetus and emphysematous foetus was reported. Tachycardia and hypothermia were consistent findings in all animals. The alkaline phosphatase, SGPT and SGOT has been increased significantly due to muscular damage. Mean duration of general anaesthesia required for obstetrical and cesarean procedure was 35.00&plusmn;0.25 min and 132.00&plusmn;0.18 min, respectively. The present study was concluded that, use of ketamine-Guaifenesin combination premedicated with xylazine hydrochloride produced excellent muscle relaxation during obstetrical and cesarean procedure in buffaloes characterized by loss of abdominal muscle tone, stable respiration and minimal cardiopulmonary changes.

Evaluation of Anaesthetic Efficacy of Xylazine-Ketamine-Guaifenesin Combination for Relieving Dystocia in Buffaloes

<div>Background: Felines have higher metabolic and heart rates than canines and therefore are considered to be the delicate subjects for anaesthesia and pain management. Major surgeries in felines require balanced anaesthesia with smooth and fast induction, longer duration of action and faster and excitement free recovery.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: The study was conducted on 24 clinical cases of cats, subjected to conventional and endoscopic surgeries for abdominal affections, premedicated with atropine and dexamethasone at the rate of 0.04 and 0.2 mg/kg body weight to assess the&nbsp; anaesthetic effect of tiletamine-zolazepam combination at the rate of 8mg/kg body weight IM in group A (n=12) and propofol @ 8 mg/kg body weight IV in group B (n=12) respectively as inducing agent to isoflurane maintained anaesthesia. 
 
Result: The mean induction time were 421.9&plusmn;69.47 seconds (7.03&plusmn;1.16 minutes) in group A and 56.2&plusmn;0.43 seconds (0.94&plusmn;0.01 minute) in group B. In both the groups quality of induction was smooth with rapid loss of all reflexes allowing easy intubation. A significant drop in rectal temperature at 15 min&nbsp; post induction with minimal alterations in heart rate, respiration rate and saturated oxygen level were observed. The mean time of recovery recorded were 75.91&plusmn;8.1 minutes in group A and 88.2&plusmn;10.2 minutes in group B. Smooth, rapid and good quality recovery was observed in both the anaesthetic groups; however, propofol-induced transitory hypothermia and shivering, lowered the quality of recovery in group B. All the physiological and hematological parameters were in normal limits.</div>

Comparative Study on the Anaesthetic Effect of Tiletamine-zolazepam and Propofol as an Induction Agent for Conventional and Endoscopic Abdominal Surgeries in Domestic Cats

<div style="text-align: justify;">A clinical study was conducted in 18 female cats subjected for ovariohysterectomy to access the analgesic and isoflurane sparing effect of buprenorphine and butorphanol in cats anaesthetized with midazolam-ketamine- isoflurane. The cats were divided into three Groups. In Group I, anaesthesia was induced by midazolam (@0.3mg/kg) ketamine (11mg/kg) mixture. In Group II and Group III cats, butorphanol and buprenorphine were administered intramuscularly @ 0.4 mg/kg and 0.01 mg/kg, 15 minutes prior to induction of anaesthesia as in Group I. Anaesthesia was maintained with isoflurane. Inspired fraction of isoflurane (FiISO) and End-tidal isoflurane (ETISO) in percentage were recorded by main stream infrared spectroscopy analysis. The postoperative antinociceptive efficacy of drugs was studied by four point simple descriptive scale (SDS) scoring system. The study on end-tidal isoflurane concentration revealed both buprenorphine and butorphanol had reduced the use of isoflurane when compared to control group and among that butorphanol had a higher isoflurane sparing effect than buprenorphine. The pain score study revealed buprenorphine produced adequate postoperative analgesia when compared to butorphanol.</div>

<div>Analgesic and isoflurane sparing effect of buprenorphine and butorphanol in cats anaesthetized with midazolam-ketamine-isoflurane</div>

<div>Background: Co-administration of anesthetic adjuvants as continuous rate infusion (CRI) can be controlled and hence is considered safer, as it can reduce the cardiopulmonary alterations in horses and is also adaptable in field conditions. Hence this study was planned to evaluate the effect of CRI of dexmedetomidine, ketamine, butorphanol and midazolam during thiopentone TIVA in horses. 
 
Methods: Thirty horses were randomly divided into five groups S, D, K, B and M having six animals in each. Premedication was done with Xylazine (1 mg/kg) and butorphanol (0.05 mg/kg) intravenously. Ketamine (2 mg/kg) and midazolam (0.2 mg/kg) were used IV for induction. CRI of normal saline alone, dexmedetomidine @ 2 &micro;g/kg/hr., butorphanol @ 0.2 mg/kg/hr., midazolam @ 0.2 mg/kg/hr. and ketamine @ 2 mg/kg/hr. were administered in groups S, D, B, M and K, respectively. Thiopentone sodium (5%) was given as a fast intravenous bolus whenever required to provide adequate anesthesia. Depth of anesthesia was evaluated on the based on clinical, haemato-biochemical, hemodynamic and endocrine variables.&nbsp; 
 
Result: First head lift, sternal recumbency time, standing time and quality of recovery showed no significant difference between the groups. Heart rate, RR, RT, SBP, DBP, CVP and MAP, BUN, creatinine, ALT, AST, cortisol, ACTH and ghrelin did not show significant variation among groups. Hb, PCV, TLC, TEC and neutrophil found significantly decreased and blood glucose remained significantly higher than the baseline value in all groups post induction. CRI of ketamine produced a better quality of recovery and thiopentone sparing effect and was found suitable for moderating stress response to anesthesia, inflammation and metabolic changes in horses administered with TIVA.</div>