Moringa oleifera Lam. is recognized internationally as a multipurpose plant with highly valuable parts. Its leaves possess antibacterial and antifungal properties (Azlan et al., 2022), anti-cancer and medicinal benefits (Santon et al., 2021; Anwar and Bhanger, 2003), high nutritional value (Price, 2007; Athira et al., 2024) and potential as animal fodder (Sanchez et al., 2006). The seeds are used for biodiesel production (Dorria et al., 2016) and as a natural coagulant for turbid water (Suarez et al., 2003; Bhatia, 2007). Moringa leaf extract (MLE) also serves as an eco-friendly biostimulant for sustainable agriculture (Dorria et al., 2016; Yaseen and Hájos, 2021) and as green manure (Sarwar et al., 2017). The broad value of moringa as a food and livelihood resource has long been emphasized in earlier development-oriented literature (Fuglie, 1999). In West Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia, its leaves and young fruits are traditional foods, although cultivation is generally informal. As demand increases, Moringa is transitioning into a plantation crop requiring improved management.
       
Beyond pod production, Moringa is increasingly valued for its fresh and processed leaves, which serve as an alternative food source to fight hunger (Mandal et al., 2022). Its wide potential underscores the need to develop cultivation techniques that ensure continuous production of seeds, young fruits and leaves. Given its emerging role as a perennial plantation crop, standardized cultivation practices are essential. Recent studies also highlight that agronomic inputs and biostimulants can influence leaf yield and quality in moringa cultivation (Balakumbahan and Kavitha, 2019), while improved seed production and propagation techniques remain important to support wider cultivation (Kumar et al., 2026).
       
Propagation is fundamental to establishing perennial crops like Moringa, particularly to ensure high-quality seedlings. Vegetative propagation via stem cuttings can accelerate establishment on dry lands (Prasad et al., 2012) and ensures uniformity in plant traits and yield (Barche et al., 2013). However, Moringa does not propagate easily from leafy stem cuttings (Tiwari and Kuntal, 2010) and success depends on stem age, position and size (Kraiem et al., 2010).
       
Cutting size influences rooting ability (Leakey and Storeton-West, 1991), which is affected by stored carbohydrates and physiological factors (Palanisamy and Kumar, 1997; Hartmann et al., 2007). Longer cuttings may contain more reserves, whereas shorter ones are more economical when material is limited. Cutting behavior also varies with genotype and physiological state of the mother plant. In Jatropha, seedling growth depends on cutting size and diameter (Santoso et al., 2008), while larger Moringa cuttings produce higher dry matter (Rufal et al., 2016). Santoso and Parwata (2010) recommend cuttings of 50-75 cm in length and 3-5 cm in diameter for quality seedling production.
       
Nursery management, including suitable media providing optimal moisture, aeration and temperature, is equally crucial. Common growing media consist of soil mixed with organic materials such as compost. With sustainability increasingly emphasized globally, organic approaches are gaining importance in agriculture.
       
Even with good seedlings, agronomic practices remain essential to maximize field performance. Plant spacing and population density strongly influence biomass production by affecting light interception, nutrient availability, weed competition, canopy formation and dry matter accumulation (Ahmed et al., 2023). Sutarno and Rosyida (2020) reported that a spacing of 20 x 25 cm produced the highest stem diameter and biomass. Therefore, this study aims to establish Moringa seedlings from stem cuttings and to evaluate their early leaf biomass potential under different plant population densities.
       
Despite the increasing demand for leaf biomass, practical information that links nursery propagation techniques (cutting length and compost-amended media) with early field biomass production under different plant densities is still limited for local Moringa accessions in dryland environments of eastern Indonesia. Therefore, this study addresses this gap by (i) identifying an efficient cutting length that provides high seedling establishment while minimizing damage to mother plants and (ii) quantifying early leaf biomass response to plant density using the selected seedlings. We hypothesized that: (1) longer cuttings would increase seedling vigor due to greater stored reserves, but an intermediate length would maximize establishment efficiency; (2) compost addition would enhance growth and establishment in the nursery; and (3) higher plant density would increase leaf biomass per unit area during early harvests.
 

Experimental site condition and plant material
 
This research comprised two experiments conducted at the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Mataram (West Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia) from October 2022 to April 2023. Experiment 1 was conducted from October to December 2022 under nursery shade conditions in Mataram (8^o34' 47.19"S; 116^o05'47.91"E; 16 m a.s.l.). A 3 x 2 factorial arrangement tested three cutting lengths (20, 40 and 60 cm) and two nursery media (topsoil and topsoil + compost). Thus, there were six treatment combinations. Stem cuttings of a local Moringa accession were surface-sterilized by dipping in a fungicide solution (0.2% mancozeb) for 2 min, air-dried and planted in 25 x 35 cm black polyethylene bags filled with topsoil alone or a 1:1 (v/v) mixture of topsoil and compost.
       
Compost used in the nursery was a well-decomposed cattle-manure-based compost produced locally. Its key chemical properties (mean of triplicate analysis) were: pH (H₂O) 7.1; organic C 21.4%; total N 1.32%; C/N 16.2; available P (Bray I) 118 mg kg^-1; and exchangeable K 1.85 cmol(+) kg^-1.
       
In the second investigation, the best seedlings from the previous experiment were utilized as plant material. From January 2023 to April 2023, the second study was conducted in the research field at Gumantar Village, District of Kayangan, North Lombok, West Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia, which is situated at an elevation of 120 meters above sea level at 8^o16'15.02"S 116^o17'34.02"T. Sand (69%), silt (25%) and clay (5%), with 1.8% organic carbon and 0.2% total nitrogen, made up the sandy loam Entisol soil. Its pH ranged from 5.9 to 6.3 and its cation exchange capacity was 7.2-10.4 cm.kg^-1. The investigation’s climate included 723 mm of rainfall, four rainy months, fifty-two rainy days, a low temperature of 26.1^oC and a maximum temperature of 35.7^oC.
 
Seedling maintenance
 
According to Santoso and Jayaputra (2023), the seedlings were housed in a basic shade house with the appropriate construction materials and framework. The second month of seedling growth was when shading was done; thereafter, no shading was used. After planting, they received daily hand watering for four weeks and 10 g per polybag was used for fertilization.
       
Experiment 1 was arranged in a completely randomized design with a 3 x 2 factorial structure and five replications. Each replicate consisted of five cuttings per treatment combination; thus, 150 cuttings (6 treatments x 5 replications x 5 cuttings) were evaluated. The experiment lasted 60 days after planting (dap). Shoot diameter was measured every two weeks, whereas number of roots, root length, shoot fresh and dry weight and root fresh and dry weight were measured at 30 and 60 dap. Sprouting (bud burst) was observed daily and the number of days to sprouting was calculated per treatment. Leaf number was recorded as leaves per cutting. Fresh weights were expressed as g cutting-1. Root length (cm) was measured from the collar to the root tip. Shoots and roots were oven-dried at 85±2^oC for 24 h (shoots) and 48 h (roots), cooled in a desiccator and weighed.
       
Experiment 2 (field) tested three plant densities: 25 x 25 cm (160,000 plants ha^-1), 30 x 30 cm (111,111 plants ha^-1) and 40 x 40 cm (62,500 plants ha^-1). The trial was arranged in a randomized complete block design with three blocks. Each plot measured 2.5 m x 2.5 m, separated by 0.5 m alleys. All plants within each plot were used for biomass measurement at harvest.
       
The field was plowed, disked and harrowed before transplanting. Based on local extension recommendations for intensive leafy biomass production and previous work under similar sandy soils in West Nusa Tenggara, a basal dose of Phonska compound fertilizer (200 kg ha^-1) and well-decomposed cow dung manure (10 t ha^-1) was incorporated during final land preparation. Flatbed irrigation was applied one day before planting and again at two weeks after transplanting. To prevent early disease and insect damage during establishment, Dithane-M45 (mancozeb) and Curacron (profenofos) were applied as protective sprays at 0.2% (w/v), following the manufacturers’ label recommen- dations. Data were analyzed using ANOVA in SAS and treatment means were separated using the HSD test at 5% (p<0.05).

The first trial showed no significant interaction between nursery media and stem cutting length on Moringa seedling growth; however, both factors individually influenced development during the two-month nursery period.
 
Shoot length and first day of sprouting
 
Table 1 indicates that cutting length and nursery media significantly affected sprouting time and shoot length. Longer cuttings (60 cm) sprouted earlier (7.4 dap) and produced taller shoots (36.1 cm at 60 dap) than shorter cuttings (20 cm, 11.7 dap; 9.7 cm). This supports the idea that longer cuttings retain greater nutrient and hormone reserves (Smith et al., 2019). Compost-enriched topsoil also produced taller shoots (33.5 cm) than plain topsoil (19.8 cm), emphasizing the role of organic matter in nutrient supply and moisture retention.


 
Shoot number and number of leaves
 
As shown in Table 2, both cutting length and media significantly affected shoot number. The 60 cm cuttings produced the most shoots (5.9), while compost-enriched topsoil also supported higher shoot numbers (4.5) than plain topsoil (3.4). These results align with theories of resource allocation, where larger propagules and nutrient-rich media enhance shoot proliferation.


       
Leaf number increased with cutting length (Table 2). The 60 cm cuttings produced the highest leaf count (35.3 leaves) and compost-enriched media supported more leaves (27.6) than topsoil (18.5). This highlights the importance of cutting size and media fertility in supporting greater photosynthetic area and biomass formation (Smith et al., 2019; Perez and Santos, 2017).
 
Number and length of roots
 
Cutting length significantly affected root number and root length (Table 3). The 60 cm cuttings produced more roots (21.6) and greater root length, especially in compost-enriched media (7.9 cm), compared with topsoil (5.7 cm). Larger cuttings and fertile media enhance root system development, improving water and nutrient uptake.


 
Shoot fresh and dry weight and root fresh and dry weight
 
Shoot biomass was significantly influenced by cutting length and media (Table 4). Longer cuttings produced higher fresh (95.8 g) and dry weight (15.9 g) values and compost-enriched media further boosted biomass (87.6 g vs. 59.4 g). Nutrient-rich media support higher biomass accumulation (Smith et al., 2019).


       
Root biomass followed the same trends, with longer cuttings and compost-amended media producing the highest fresh (7.86 g) and dry weights (1.61 g) (Table 4). This confirms the significance of cutting size and media fertility in root development.
 
Physiological interpretation of cutting responses
 
Table 1-4 collectively show superior seedling growth from 40 cm and 60 cm cuttings grown in compost-enriched topsoil. Larger cuttings contain more stored carbohydrates and more mature tissues, supporting rapid sprouting, bud break and rooting. This contrasts with Leakey’s (1985) view that large cuttings from mature trees are harder to root, but maturity and stored reserves in this study favored regeneration. Leafless cuttings often rely on internal reserves (Leakey, 1999) and longer cuttings provide higher carbohydrate stores necessary for bud activation and re-differentiation (Hartmann et al., 2007). Prior studies in Jatropha and Azadirachta also confirm superior rooting from longer cuttings (Santoso et al., 2008; Palanisamy and Kumar, 1997). Thus, longer cuttings promote faster shoot and root development through increased carbohydrate availability (Hartmann et al., 2007; Leakey, 1999).
       
Although cutting length did not significantly affect the timing of first root emergence (9-11 dap), longer cuttings produced more and longer roots. This aligns with findings that cutting length affects root number across species (Leakey, 1999; Howard, 1996). Longer cuttings also exhibited greater root dry weight, indicating stronger root systems essential for shoot growth.
 
Shoot-root ratio and seedling percentage
 
As shown in Table 5, compost-amended media produced the highest seedling establishment (91.1%) and 40 cm cuttings produced the highest establishment among cutting lengths (86.2%). Although 60 cm cuttings generally produced more vigorous shoots and roots (Table 1-4), 40 cm cuttings showed a more balanced shoot-root ratio and higher establishment, which is advantageous for transplanting and for reducing the amount of cutting material removed from mother plants. A smaller shoot-root ratio increases seedling resilience during transplanting (Siagian et al., 1994), as it enhances water and nutrient uptake relative to transpiration demand. Seedling success rates were much higher in 40 cm (86.2%) and 60 cm (72.1%) cuttings than in 20 cm cuttings (20.6%). Media effects were also clear, with compost media producing higher establishment than topsoil alone (79.5%), likely due to improved aeration, nutrient availability and microbial activity (Dickens, 2011; Peter-Onoh  et al., 2014; Kreshnadhi et al., 2021; Leakey, 1999).


       
Overall, high-quality Moringa seedlings depend on cutting size and media fertility. Stands with strong biomass potential require vigorous seedlings (Santoso and Jayaputra, 2023) and this study confirms that 60 cm cuttings are optimal, though 40 cm cuttings remain suitable for propagation (Santoso and Parwata, 2020; Hartmann et al., 2007). These results reinforce the value of vegetative propagation for Moringa and support further research on economic feasibility and long-term field performance (Smith et al., 2019).
       
The second experiment showed that seedlings selected from Trial 1 responded differently to plant spacing after transplanting in the field. As shown in Table 6, increasing plant density increased leaf number and shoot branch length but reduced branch number and branch width (p<0.05). These results are consistent with spacing optimization principles that balance competition and resource capture (Smith et al., 2019).


       
Spacing significantly affected leaf and stem biomass (Table 7). Closer spacing (25 x 25 cm) produced higher plot-level fresh and dry weights, while wider spacing improved individual plant biomass. This pattern is consistent with biomass optimization across densities, where high densities improve total yield per area despite reduced individual plant size.


       
Leaf biomass increased with population density, with the highest values at 160,000 plants ha-1 (25 x 25 cm). Densities of 62,500 and 111,111 plants ha-1 produced similar but lower biomass. These findings align with Goss (2012), who reported biomass increases with higher density. Leaf biomass, the key economic component of Moringa (Ridwan et al., 2021), increased due to improved radiation capture and root distribution at high densities. The importance of moringa-based biostimulant and biomass-oriented management has also been noted in recent studies on crop productivity and foliage quality (Truong et al., 2023).
       
Optimal spacing ensures maximum yield per land area, as supported by studies in other perennial and annual crops (Salik et al., 2023; Khan and Rab, 2019). In this study, the densest spacing (160,000 plants ha^-1) produced the tallest plants and highest biomass. Similar responses were reported by Santos et al., (2021), Abdullahi et al., (2013), Adegun et al., (2013) and Ahmed et al., (2023) across various species.

Vegetative propagation of Moringa oleifera using stem cuttings was strongly influenced by cutting length and nursery medium. In the nursery, 60 cm cuttings produced the most vigorous seedlings (greater shoot and root biomass), whereas 40 cm cuttings provided the highest establishment (86.2%) with a balanced shoot-root ratio and required less cutting material from mother plants. Compost-amended medium consistently improved seedling growth and establishment compared with topsoil alone. After transplanting, higher plant density (25 x 25 cm) increased early leaf biomass per unit area compared with wider spacing. These results provide a practical two-stage propagation and early production guideline for leaf-biomass- oriented Moringa cultivation under dryland conditions in West Nusa Tenggara.

The authors wish to acknowledge the Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher Education of the Republic of Indonesia for research funding through the 2019-2022 PTUPT decentralization scheme and Mr. Sahru for technical assistance in the field.
 
Disclaimers
 
The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.

 The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. No funding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.