Banana (Musa spp.) is a major staple and cash crop cultivated widely in tropical regions. In the Philippines, the cooking-type Cardava banana (locally known as saba) plays a critical role in household food security and rural livelihoods, particularly among smallholder farmers. Recent assessments have shown that Cardava banana production contributes significantly to rural incomes; however, productivity remains constrained by limited access to high-quality planting materials and inefficiencies in the value chain (Orejudos et al., 2022; Samanhudi et al., 2021). At the farm level, most growers continue to rely on sword and water suckers as planting materials, a conventional vegetative propagation method characterized by low multiplication rates and a high risk of pest and disease transmission (Tumuhimbise and Talengera, 2018).
       
Although tissue culture has been promoted as a means of producing disease-free and genetically uniform banana planting materials, its adoption among smallholder farmers remains limited. High production costs, technical requirements and restricted access to specialized laboratories, particularly in geographically isolated and disadvantaged areas, have constrained widespread use of this technology. These limitations underscore the need for alternative propagation systems that are affordable, technically simple and based on locally available resources (Tumuhimbise and Talengera, 2018).
       
Macropropagation using whole corms or large corm sections has emerged as a viable alternative for rapid multiplication of banana planting materials. Studies have demonstrated that in vivo macropropagation can substantially increase sucker production and improve early plant growth when appropriate management practices are applied (Husna and Miah, 2023). Reviews further indicate that macropropagation reduces disease risks associated with farmer-sourced suckers while avoiding much of the cost and infrastructure required for tissue culture (Tumuhimbise and Talengera, 2018). However, the effectiveness of macropropagation systems is strongly influenced by the physical and nutritional characteristics of the propagation medium.
       
In Philippine smallholder farming systems, large quantities of agricultural residues, such as compost, coconut husks, mung bean pod hulls, rice hulls and banana pseudostems, are generated but often underutilized (Dela Cruz  et al., 2008). Previous studies have shown that selected farm waste–based substrates can improve shoot emergence and early vigor of Cardava banana under macroclonal propagation (Paderes  et al., 2022). Similar benefits of organic amendments on banana growth and physiological performance have been reported in similar studies, including the use of organic manure and biological amendments in tissue culture-derived banana (Samanhudi et al., 2021). Identifying effective alternative substrates is particularly important when specific residues are seasonally unavailable (Kumar et al., 2021).
       
Beyond agronomic relevance, banana macropropagation provides a practical context for experiential learning in agricultural and biological science education. Experiential learning theory emphasizes learning through direct experience, reflection and application (Kolb, 1984). Empirical studies have shown that hands-on agricultural activities significantly enhance students’ engagement, understanding and achievement compared with lecture-based approaches (Bala, 2024). Integrating banana macropropagation experiments into biology instruction, therefore, offers an opportunity to simultaneously generate locally relevant research evidence and strengthen student learning.
       
Against this background, the present study aimed to (i) compare the effects of different farm waste-based substrates on shoot emergence and early growth of macropropagated and traditionally propagated Cardava banana plantlets under ex situ greenhouse conditions, (ii) evaluate the subsequent growth and yield performance of macropropagated and conventionally propagated plants under field conditions and (iii) assess the educational outcomes of integrating macropropagation activities into biology instruction.

Effectiveness of farm waste media on shoot emergence and early growth
 
Shoot emergence
 
The mean number of days required for primary bud emergence across the five farm waste media is presented in Table 1. Across all treatments, macropropagated plants consistently exhibited faster shoot emergence than traditionally propagated plants. Based on Tukey’s honest significant difference (HSD) test, the overall ranking of media performance for shoot emergence was as follows: T4-Soil + Mung Bean Pod Hull (a) > T3-Soil + Compost (ab) ≈ T2 -Soil + Coconut Husk (ab) > T1-Soil only (bc) > T5-Soil + Rice Hull (c).


       
T4 (a) produced the fastest shoot emergence, with macropropagated plants emerging at 10 days and traditionally propagated plants at 14 days. T3 and T2 (ab) were statistically comparable to T4, indicating that compost- and coconut husk-amended soils provided similarly favorable conditions for early bud activation. The control treatment, T1 (bc), showed moderate emergence, whereas T5 (c) showed the slowest emergence across both propagation methods.
       
The superior performance of T4 can be attributed to the nutrient-rich nature of mung bean pod hulls, which enhance nitrogen availability and microbial activity, thereby supporting early metabolic processes required for bud initiation (Algan et al., 2011; Geng et al., 2021). Compost and coconut husk similarly improved emergence relative to the control due to improved moisture retention and gradual nutrient release. In contrast, the poor performance of rice hull-amended soil (c) reflects its slow decomposition rate and limited short-term nutrient availability (Jasey, 2018; Nguyen et al., 2022).
       
One-way ANOVA, as shown in Table 2, confirmed significant differences among media for both macropropagated (F = 27.35, p<0.001) and traditionally propagated plants (F = 35.47, p <0.001). The Tukey grouping clearly demonstrates that, although mung bean pod hulls remain the most effective substrate, compost and coconut husk represent statistically comparable and practical alternatives when legume residues are unavailable.

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Plant growth performance
 
Mean plant height at 2 and 4 months after planting is presented in Table 3. Across all treatments, macropropagated plants attained significantly greater height than traditionally propagated plants.

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Tukey’s HSD test revealed the following general ranking of propagation media for early plant height: T4-soil + mung bean pod hull (a) > T3-soil + compost (ab) ≈ T2-soil + coconut husk (ab) > T1-soil only (bc) > T5-soil + rice hull (c).
       
T4 (a) consistently produced the tallest plants, reaching 55 cm at 2 months and 90 cm at 4 months under macropropagation. However, T3 and T2 (ab) did not differ significantly from T4, indicating that these substrates also supported strong early growth. The control treatment (bc) showed intermediate performance, while T5 (c) produced the shortest plants, reflecting limited nutrient contribution during early growth.
       
Two-way ANOVA in Table 4 indicated significant main effects of media (F = 20.17, p<0.001) and propagation method (F = 25.59, p < 0.001), as well as a significant interaction effect (F = 3.94, p = 0.010), suggesting that the magnitude of media effects varied with propagation method. Overall, nutrient-dense organic substrates promoted superior early growth (Singh et al., 2020), supporting the use of compost and coconut husk as alternative propagation media alongside mung bean pod hulls (Geng et al., 2021; Nguyen et al., 2022; Goyal et al., 2020).

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Comparative performance of macropropagation and traditional propagation in the field
 
Growth rates
 
Macropropagated plants, as shown in Plate 1, consistently exhibited greater height at all field evaluation stages (6, 12 and 18 months). At 18 months, macropropagated plants reached an average height of 210 cm compared with 190 cm for traditionally propagated plants (Table 5).



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These results are consistent with earlier studies reporting that macropropagation produces more uniform and vigorous banana planting materials due to improved sanitation and reduced pathogen exposure during propagation (Wairegi et al., 2022; Astorga-Quirós  et al., 2023). Enhanced early vigor likely contributed to faster canopy establishment, a critical determinant of banana productivity.
 
Yield performance
 
Yield data in Table 6 showed that macropropagated plants produced an average of 25 kg per plant, significantly higher than the 18 kg obtained from traditionally propagated plants (Plate 2).  The paired t-test in Table 7 confirmed this difference to be highly significant (t = 21.09, p<0.001), corresponding to a mean yield advantage of 7.10 kg per plant.

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This yield improvement underscores the economic advantage of macropropagation. At a planting density of 100 plants, the additional yield of approximately 710 kg per harvest represents a substantial gain in income and food supply. Similar yield advantages associated with macropropagation have been reported across banana cultivars, highlighting the robustness of this method (Ravi et al., 2021; Wairegi et al., 2022).
 
Impact on students’ understanding of plant propagation methods
 
Pre-and post-instruction assessment
 
Student assessment results indicated a substantial improvement in understanding of plant propagation concepts following participation in hands-on macropropagation activities. Mean scores increased from 55% in the pretest to 85% in the posttest, representing a 30% gain (Table 8). Paired t-test analysis confirmed the significance of this improvement (t = 9.21, p<0.001).

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Student feedback and perceived learning outcomes
 
Qualitative analysis of student reflections further supported the quantitative learning gains. Common themes emerging from student feedback included enhanced understanding of propagation techniques, increased engagement and interest in agriculture, improved confidence in practical skills and greater appreciation for sustainable agricultural practices (Table 9).

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These findings are consistent with experiential learning theory, which emphasizes the role of concrete experience in reinforcing conceptual understanding (Kolb, 1984). Similar gains in learning outcomes have been reported in agricultural education studies employing experiential approaches (Adekunle et al., 2022; Bala, 2024).
 
Student engagement, interest and knowledge retention
 
Engagement and interest
 
Survey results (Table 10) showed that 90% of students reported increased engagement during lessons, while 80% expressed heightened interest in agricultural sciences following the practical activities. These outcomes align with evidence that hands-on instruction enhances motivation and relevance in science education (Freeman et al., 2014).

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Knowledge retention
 
Follow-up assessment conducted three months after instruction revealed a knowledge retention rate of 75% among students exposed to both theoretical and practical learning, compared with 50% among students receiving theory-only instruction (Table 11). This 25% difference highlights the long-term cognitive benefits of experiential learning, consistent with recent educational research (Adekunle et al., 2022).

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The study confirms that macropropagation combined with farm waste–based substrates significantly enhances the growth, propagation efficiency, and yield of Cardava banana. Soil amended with mung bean pod hulls produced the best early growth performance, while macropropagated plants consistently outperformed traditionally propagated materials under greenhouse and field conditions. The method resulted in higher plant vigor and an average yield increase of 7.10 kg per plant, demonstrating strong potential for improving smallholder productivity. Integrating macropropagation into biology instruction also improved student learning, engagement, and knowledge retention through experiential learning. Overall, the approach offers a sustainable, low-cost strategy that simultaneously supports agricultural productivity and innovation in agricultural education.

The authors extend their sincere gratitude to the administration of the Abra State Institute of Sciences and Technology (ASIST) for providing the facilities, equipment and logistical support necessary to conduct this study. Special appreciation is given to the staff of the Tissue Culture Laboratory and Greenhouse at the Research and Development Building in Lagangilang, Abra, for their technical assistance during the propagation experiments. The authors also acknowledge the fourth-year BS Biology students who participated in the research’s educational component for their enthusiasm and cooperation. Their active involvement significantly contributed to the study’s success. Lastly, the authors thank the faculty mentors and research advisers for their guidance in strengthening the design, execution and refinement of this work.
 
Disclaimers
 
The views and conclusions presented in this paper are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policies, positions, or endorsements of Abra State Institute of Sciences and Technology or any affiliated institutions. Any errors or omissions remain the responsibility of the authors.
 
Informed consent
 
All student participants involved in the educational component of this study provided prior written informed consent after being fully briefed on the study’s purpose, procedures, potential risks and voluntary nature of participation. No identifying information was collected and all responses were kept strictly confidential. Participation or non-participation did not affect students’ academic standing. The study was reviewed and approved by the ASIST Research Ethics Committee, ensuring compliance with ethical standards for research involving human participants.
 

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest, financial or otherwise, that could have influenced the conduct or outcomes of this research. The study was conducted independently, without any commercial or external funding that might create bias.