Asian Journal of Dairy and Food Research

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Review Article

Prevalence and Risk Factors for Bovine Mastitis: A Review based on Selected Sub-saharan African Countries

Mpho Ramuada1, Thobela Louis Tyasi1, Lungile Gumede1, Teedzai Chitura2,*
  • 0000-0001-9676-7166, 0000-0002-3519-7806, 0000-0002-4510-5733, 0000-0002-6048-6917
1Department of Agricultural Economics and Animal Production, University of Limpopo, Private Bag X1106, Sovenga 0727, South Africa.
2Department of Animal Science, University of Venda, Private Bag X5050, Thohoyandou 0950, South Africa.

ABSTRACT

Mastitis is one of the major diseases affecting dairy farmers since it is associated with direct and indirect losses and expenditures due to low milk yield and poor milk quality in Sub Saharan countries (South Africa, Ethiopia, Nigeria and Kenya) as well as other parts of the world. Prevalence of mastitis in dairy herds has gained increasing attention in recent years. This narrative review article provides a comprehensive backup of literature on the prevalence, its causal agents, environmental and management-related risk factors for bovine mastitis according to studies conducted in the selected countries. The literature review indicated that from South African-based studies, average prevalence of subclinical mastitis (SCM) is 17.8% and 18.5% Clinical mastitis (CM). The average prevalence of mastitis based on studies from Ethiopia is 39.8% (SCM) and 22.1% (CM). Nigerian-based studies reported an average prevalence of 33.8% (SCM) and 4.1% (CM). Studies carried out in Kenya reported a prevalence rate of 69.6% (SCM) and 27.2% (CM). Antibiotic resistance, lack of implementation of adequate management practices for mastitis control such as teat disinfection, provision of clean bedding and clean housing were identified as the most common risk factors. Findings of this study revealed a high prevalence of mastitis in the selected countries and presence of risk factors for bovine mastitis. Therefore, addressing the identified risk factors could help to reduce direct and indirect losses in dairy enterprises because of subclinical and clinical mastitis.

INTRODUCTION

Mastitis is an inflammation of the parenchyma of the mammary gland produced by infectious agents that infiltrate the udder, multiply and produce toxins.  Mastitis is a multifactorial disease involving microbes, the host and the environment and is classified as either sub-clinical or clinical mastitis. Clinical mastitis is characterized by visible abnormalities in the milk or the udder tissue while subclinical mastitis is inflammation of the mammary gland that does not create visible changes in the milk or the udder tissue. Although the milk appears normal, sub-clinically infected cows will produce less milk and the quality of the milk will be reduced (Hadef et al., 2022). Clinical mastitis can occur in one or more quarters of the udder and can range from mild to severe. Acute clinical mastitis is the severe form of the disease and is characterized by a sudden onset of symptoms and visible abnormalities such as udder swelling, hardness of the affected quarter, pain, watery milk and reduced milk yield (Kidanu, 2022) In some cases, the cow may display symptoms of infection, such as loss of appetite, fatigue and a decline in milk supply (Kumar et al., 2020). The California Mastitis Test (CMT) and Bacteriological Culturing (BC) of milk are the most employed diagnostic methods. However, conducting epidemiological investigations of bovine mastitis, including infection status and treatment patterns, would offer valuable management insights for producers, veterinarians and other members of the mastitis control team (Sharun et al., 2021).
       
Mastitis contributes significantly to revenue losses in the dairy farming industry worldwide (Singh, 2022). Furthermore, the condition may pose a serious public health threat in cases where zoonotic pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus agalactiae, Mycoplasma spp, Escherichia coli and Enterococcus spp are implicated (Ngu Ngwa et al., 2020). Mastitis causes economic losses to dairy farms as well as public health concerns (Paramasivam et al., 2023). The profitability of dairy operations is significantly affected by the reproductive efficiency of their dairy herds, which is highly correlated with the health of the cows (Dalanezi et al., 2020). Mastitis causes a decline in milk production as well as loss of quality of milk (Harjanti and Sambodho, 2020; Lahiri, 2023). The costs that are involved in the management of cases of mastitis such as attending to milking hygiene practices, udder health monitoring, individual cow treatment and other veterinary services related costs further add to the economic burdens of mastitis (Aghamohammadi et al., 2018). Kumar et al., (2017) reported a relationship between mastitis and decreased fertility in dairy cows because of reduced conception rates and longer intervals between conception and calving among other disturbances (Ibrahim et al., 2023). Furthermore, cows with chronic or recurring mastitis may need to undergo early culling bringing in extra costs of buying new cows or rearing more replacement heifers (Diniso and Jaja, 2021; Rodríguez, 2024).
       
Subclinical mastitis is asymptomatic and characterised by the absence of visible changes to the udder. However, the physical and chemical composition of the milk is altered (Yehia et al., 2024).  Subclinical mastitis can lead to a decrease in milk production (Antanaitis et al., 2021). Cows with infections might experience a decrease in milk production, along with a decline in milk quality due to elevated somatic cell counts (SCC) and potential issues like off-flavors and irregularities in composition. Reduced milk quality can lead to the milk being downgraded or declined by dairy processors, resulting in financial setbacks (Alhussien et al., 2021). Clinical mastitis is characterised by the presence of indicators of inflammation in the mammary gland such as swelling, heat, pain, as well as changes in the milk such as flakes and clots (Negash, 2023). Krueger (2019) and Ginger et al., (2023) pointed out that the pain associated with clinical mastitis severely affects animal welfare. Sadiq et al., (2020) and Eryýlmaz (2022) identified early detection, prompt treatment and the implementation of preventative measures such as maintaining excellent milking hygiene, ensuring clean and dry bedding and conducting routine udder health assessments as key measures towards reducing the occurrences of clinical mastitis in dairy herds.
       
This review paper was consolidated from studies published between 2003 and 2024 in various scientific journals. Electronic databases, such as Google Scholar, Science Direct and Research Gate were searched to gather relevant information for this review. The search was conducted using keywords such as ‘mastitis’, ‘prevalence’, ‘risk factors’, ‘South Africa’, ‘Ethiopia’, ‘Kenya’, ‘Nigeria’ and ‘economic losses. The four Sub-Saharan African countries were selected for the study due to the abundance of scientific literature on dairy cattle mastitis from studies that were carried out in these countries. Articles were gathered from scientific databases such as Google Scholar, Sci Direct, Web of Science and PubMed. Inclusion criteria was studies published in English that described the prevalence of mastitis and associated risk factors in South Africa, Ethiopia, Kenya and Nigeria, for both clinical and subclinical mastitis.
 
Prevalence of mastitis
 
Mastitis is among the most prevalent diseases of dairy cattle worldwide. The prevalence of bovine mastitis varies across countries, regions and individual farms partly due to differences in climatic conditions, herd management practices and genetics (Fulasa and Deressa, 2021; Singha et al., 2021). According to the studies included in our review, the average prevalence of clinical mastitis ranges from 5%-20% while subclinical mastitis prevalence is higher and ranges between 15% to 50%. Several risk factors contribute to the occurrence and spread of mastitis in the study area (Table 1). Studies based on bovine mastitis in Kenya reported the highest prevalence of subclinical mastitis while studies based on bovine mastitis in South Africa reported the lowest prevalence rate (Fig 1). Studies conducted on bovine mastitis in Kenya reported the highest prevalence of clinical mastitis standing on (27, 2%) while studies on bovine mastitis in Nigeria reported the lowest prevalence rate (4.1 %) (Fig 2).

Table 1: Prevalence and risk factors for bovine mastitis in selected Sub-Saharan African countries (South Africa, Ethiopia, Nigeria, Kenya).



Fig 1: Average prevalences of subclinical mastitis as reported by studies based on bovine mastitis in the selected Sub-Saharan countries (South Africa, Ethiopia, Nigeria and Kenya).



Fig 2: Average prevalence of clinical mastitis as reported by studies on South Africa, Ethiopia, Nigeria and Kenya.


 
Prevalence of bovine mastitis and associated risk factors
 
Several studies investigated the prevalence of bovine mastitis. Kumari et al., (2018) reported a range of 5 to 20 % for clinical mastitis and 15 to 50% for subclinical mastitis. Findings of the present study revealed that generally, there were more studies conducted on bovine subclinical mastitis (40 articles) as compared to studies conducted on bovine clinical mastitis (18 articles). These articles were published during the period 2005 to 2023. This observation underscores the significance of subclinical mastitis that necessitates its early detection in dairy cattle farming. From the selected Sub-Saharan African countries, majority of the studies were on bovine mastitis in Ethiopia. This observation could indicate that bovine mastitis is a major challenge in Ethiopia probably since majority of the producers are smallholder farmers who are resource limited.  South Africa had the lowest number of studies on bovine mastitis. This could highlight the need for more studies to provide key information on the disease situation in South Africa. From the 58 articles reviewed in this study, it is evident that studies on bovine mastitis in Kenya reported the highest pooled prevalence of both subclinical and clinical mastitis with averages of 69.6% and 27.2% respectively while studies on Ethiopia reported the second highest prevalence rates with 39.8% and 22.1% for subclinical and clinical mastitis respectively. This agrees with the findings by Ndirangu et al., (2022) and Michira et al., (2023). Mbindyo et al., (2020) and Duguma (2020) reported that high prevalences of bovine mastitis are largely due to traditional farming practices, lack of farmer awareness about the disease and limited access to veterinary services and modern dairy management techniques. Several risk factors can be attributed to high prevalences of bovine mastitis. Sombie et al., (2022) and Nyokabi et al., (2021) reported lack of cattle farmer knowledge on mastitis as a significant risk factor in Kenya. Studies on bovine subclinical mastitis in South Africa reported the lowest prevalence rate. This could be partly due to few studies published on bovine mastitis in South African as compared to the other countries that were selected for this study. However, when comparing the findings of Taoana (2005) and Khasapane et al., (2023), there is an indication of an increased prevalence of clinical mastitis in South Africa. Prevalence rates for bovine subclinical mastitis in Ethiopia that were reported in this study correspond with the observations of Umaru et al., (2017) and Gelgelu et al., (2023). High prevalence of bovine mastitis in the study area are associated production losses, risks of antibiotic residues in milk and the involuntary culling or death of affected animals. Hogeveen et al., (2011) stated that the effects of bovine mastitis on milk quality in addition to the cost of treating infected animals may have consequences that extend beyond the dairy farm.  Belay et al., (2022) indicated the high prevalence of bovine mastitis poses a zoonotic risk as mastitis-causing pathogens can be transferred to humans through contaminated milk. Makatu et al., (2021) highlighted the animal welfare concerns caused by bovine mastitis due to pain, stress and discomfort that affect the well-being of cows.
       
Elsewhere, studies were also conducted on bovine mastitis prevalence. In the South American region, studies carried out in Brazil and Argentina reported ranges between 20 to 50% for bovine subclinical mastitis prevalence and an average of 10% for bovine clinical mastitis. Freitas et al., (2018) and Schunig et al., (2024) indicated that factors such as intensive dairy farming practices and environmental conditions such as high humidity and high temperatures contribute to the spread of the disease. Dego (2020) indicated that the widespread use of antibiotics and the resulting antimicrobial resistance further complicate mastitis management in these regions. In South Asia, Ali et al., (2021) stated that Pakistan exhibits one of the highest mastitis prevalence rates, with clinical and subclinical mastitis affecting between 20% and 53% of cattle. Poor management practices and inadequate sanitary conditions on farms were cited as the key reasons for the high prevalence of bovine mastitis in Pakistan. In China, Liang et al., (2023) reported prevalences of around 10% for clinical mastitis while Wang et al., (2022) reported a decline in mastitis prevalence in China during the period 2011–2020 as compared to the period of 2000–2010. The authors suggested the rapid developments in technology targeted against major pathogens such as S. aureus, advanced milking techniques and strict biosecurity measures undertaken by the farms as some of the reasons for the observed decline (Mooventhan et al., 2016).
       
Regarding risk factors for bovine mastitis, Singha et al., (2021) identified some of the major factors that are responsible for the variations in the prevalence of the disease across countries, regions and individual farms. These include differences in climate, herd management practices and genetics. Fulasa and Deressa (2021) classified risk factors into management-related and cow-specific factors. The authors further indicated that effective management practices to prevent mastitis at the farm level include regular floor cleaning, proper milking techniques, udder washing before milking and pre- and post-milking teat dipping in antiseptic solutions while cow-specific factors include the stage of lactation, breed, history of mastitis and parity (Ulla et al., 2021). In addition to similar observations on risk factors as indicated above, our study identified microbiological resistance as a common risk while advanced age, higher parity and an advanced stage of lactation (third stage and beyond) poor hygiene management, such as lack of sanitation, hand milking, provision of improper bedding material and poor sanitary measures on the udder and milking equipment were identified as the common risk factors for clinical mastitis.  These findings indicate that there are major concerns regarding practices for reducing bovine mastitis prevalence by the farmers in the study area. Petzer et al., (2018) and Diniso and Jaja (2021) indicated that the type of production system, such as pasture-based farming, is a risk factor in South Africa.
 
Prevention and control measures for bovine mastitis
 
Zigo et al., (2019) emphasized prevention of bovine mastitis to safeguard animal health, ensure high milk quality and to optimize cow productivity.  El-Sayed and Kamel (2021) pointed out that strategies for mastitis prevention and control vary based on factors like farm size, management practices and the prevalence of specific pathogens in the area. Breen (2019) highlighted a five-point core plan for mastitis prevention and control that includes disinfecting teats, adhering to hygienic milking procedures, removing cows with chronic mastitis, administering dry cow therapy with antibiotics and treatment of cows with clinical mastitis. Patel et al., (2021) identified bedding materials provided to dairy cows as the primary sources of environmental mastitis and indicated that measures to reduce bacterial counts in bedding generally lower the risk. Vargova et al., (2023) indicated that cleaning teats and pre-milking teat dipping in antiseptic solution can help to reduce bacterial counts on the skin of the udder. Tiwari et al., (2020) mentioned post-milk teat dipping as a significant measure to reduce the rate of new infections, particularly from contagious mastitis pathogens. Tegegne et al., (2020). stated that dry cow therapy is the most effective method for curing chronic and subclinical mastitis and that timely and effective treatment of active cases also helps prevent new infections (Sinha et al., 2018).

CONCLUSION

Bovine mastitis is highly prevalent in selected countries. Understanding the risk factors for bovine mastitis is essential for controlling the disease at the farm level and as a result reduce both direct and indirect losses in dairy enterprises due to subclinical and clinical mastitis.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The present study was supported by Department of Agricultural Economics and Animal Production, University of Limpopo and the University of Venda’s Department of Animal Science.
 
Disclaimers
 
The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.
 
Informed consent
 
This review complies with rigorous ethical standards in scientific research and reporting. All referenced information has been properly cited to ensure due credit is given to previous work. The is no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. No funding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. No funding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

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