ICT in Public Extension: Constraints and Suggestions Through the Lens of Extension Functionaries

In developing nations like India, where agriculture is the main economic sector, agricultural extension is essential in developing the farming systems. The speed at which ICT is being used in every industry worldwide has led to its adoption in agriculture sector to help farmers, extension services and other industry participants obtain information quickly (Nyarko and Kozari, 2021). As there is a need to feed 143 crores people, the newer technologies have to be trickled down to the farmers (Sangapate et al., 2024). Farmers’ information and communication demands could be met by ICTs significantly more quickly and accurately than in the past (Daum, 2018). Over the past ten years, the agriculture industry has undergone a new technological revolution. This new technological revolution has the ability to properly and quickly respond to farmers’ requirements in comparison to a decade ago (Wolfert et al., 2017). Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) streamlines processes, improves accessibility and accelerates innovation in agriculture (Haqyar et al., 2025).
       
ICT applications have great opportunities to improve technology transfer between research and extension systems and subsequent dissemination to end users (Nirmalkar et al., 2022) and (Effiong et al., 2024). The empowerment of rural communities may be made possible via ICT-based agricultural extension, which offers legitimate prospects (Saravanan, 2010). Although ICTs are widely promoted, extension functionaries are still far from making the most of them. According to Ezeh, (2013), a lack of operational literacy causes a significant gap in the extension agents’ operational knowledge. Yakubu, (2013) discovered that state extension staff did not fully utilize the advantages of ICTs.
       
The degree of ICT adoption in agriculture is also significantly influenced by technical limitations, such as the accessibility of infrastructure, technical expertise and support services (Patra et al., 2020). Chiazoka et al., (2021) found that village extension workers faced issues like lack of training on use of ICT (14.96%), high cost of ICT tools (14.73%) and high cost of internet subscription (12.05%). Limitations when using ICT include poor service, a lack of technical expertise, trouble finding pertinent information, higher internet data requirements, inappropriate and incomprehensible content, poor response, irrelevant posts, anxiety about the security of personal information on social media, a language barrier when using a mobile device, ignorance of how gadgets work and inadequate tools (Patel et al., 2022).
       
Extension functionaries face constraints like administrative, operational, general, infrastructural, technical and financial (Pandey et al., 2024). Gad et al., (2021) found that the most important problems that impede the use of information technology and communication in extension work was lack of financial allocations for training in this field and lack of motivation for workers to use information technology and communication. Anim-Dankwa, (2018) discovered that poor reception, language barriers and content limits were the primary obstacles faced by the farmers in the study.
       
Additionally, adequate infrastructure and funding for ICTs are prerequisites (Panda et al., 2023). According to Umar et al., (2015), extension staff should be encouraged to use ICTs by providing them with stable power and ICT facilities, as well as by developing their ICT usage skills. Government funding is required to enhance the delivery of extension services using supplemental ICTs (Tata et al., 2018).  Annor-Frempong et al., (2006) discovered that in order to improve the use of ICTs in extension, extension agents require infrastructure, financial resources, technical support and ICT training opportunities.
       
Sa’adu et al., (2022) recommended that governments should design a policy that will focus on awareness, training, access to ICTs among the extension agents, provide an alternative source of power, this will enable them to remain within the system and increase their usage of ICTs in extension service delivery. According to Idrisa et al., (2013), basic infrastructure like power should be made available in rural regions and extension agents should be urged to improve their educational backgrounds and ICT proficiency. Ganpat et al., (2016) suggested that employers increase the entry-level criteria for new officers and give those currently in the system in-service training in ICTs and other contemporary communication tools and methodologies.

The study was carried out in four districts, including Jaipur, Cuttack, Balasore and Bhadrak of Odisha, India. The districts were selected by purposive sampling as they represent a  combination of somewhat interior and coastal regions, offering diversity in agricultural practices, ICT infrastructure, extension activities and ICT penetration. This allows a comprehensive representation of ICT utilisation patterns and constraints faced across varied contexts within Odisha’s public extension system. Also, the coastal districts were chosen purposively as they are more prone to disaster (Jayasingh et al., 2024). A higher degree of coastal vulnerability is indicated by the Odisha coast’s geoclimatic setting, which is vulnerable to natural disasters such cyclones, storm surges, flooding and sea level change (Hazra et al., 2022). So, information dissemination becomes vital related to pre-disaster management of crops,post-disaster management etc. For the study, each block in every district was chosen. 43 blocks were taken in total. The study included 248 respondents, including agricultural extension functionaries such as the Chief District Agricultural Officer (CDAO), Agricultural District Officer (ADO), Block Agricultural Officer (BAO), Assistant Agricultural Officer (AAO), Block Technology Manager (BTM) and Assistant Technology Manager (ATM).By obtaining a duly signed No Objection Certificate from Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan University, Bhubaneswar , Odisha the data was collected from the public extension functionaries of Office of Chief District Agricultural Officer,Bhadrak,Balasore,Jajpur and Cuttack. The constraints were divided into five categories: technological, organizational, capacity-related, socio-psychological and infrastructural. A detailed map of the state with the selected districts was prepared using QGIS software and  has been provided in the Fig 1. Prior to the final interview schedule being created, the questionnaire was pretested on 10% of the sample size, or six respondents chosen at random from each district. Testing phase input helped improve the questionnaire. Workplace interviews were used to obtain data, encouraging candid and open responses. Using an ex-post facto design, this process took place between July to September of 2024.
       
The goal of the interview was to find out more about the difficulties extension functionaries of public extension system encounter when utilizing ICT for official work. In view of the specified limitations, respondents were asked to rate the constraints that were prepared on various dimensions. Utilizing the Garrett Ranking Technique, the final ranking of limitations was presented as numerical ratings. It offers an advantage over a simple frequency distribution since it numerically distributes the limits based on their significance to the respondents. This suggests that two or more limitations with the same number of responders may be given different ranks.
       
According to the data in Table 1, Garrett’s algorithm Garrett, (1969) was used, the ranks were transformed into percentages as follows:

 

 

Where,
Rij = Rank given for i^th constraint by j^th individual.
Nj = Number of constraints ranked by j^th individual.


               
The percentage positions were then converted into scores using Garrett’s table. For each constraint dimension  with same rank they were made an average in order to calculate the final score.

From Table 2, It was found that Lack of technical assistance for troubleshooting was the most urgent limitation among the technological issues (Rank 1), with a Mean Garrett Score of 66.44. This suggests that functionaries find it difficult to fix technical issues as a result of insufficient support mechanisms, which has a direct impact on their ability to use ICTs confidently and effectively. Compatibility problems between platforms and devices came in second, illustrating the difficulties brought on by offices’ non-standard hardware and software. The fact that outdated software and hardware came in third underscores the continued prevalence of technical obsolescence in extension offices. Regular outages and inadequate internet access came in fourth and fifth place, respectively.


       
From Table 3, It was found that with a Mean Garrett Score of 58.50, the organization’s biggest restriction (Rank 1) was the Low priority given to ICT skill enhancement. This suggests that institutional attention on methodically improving ICT competencies is still lacking, despite the growing significance of digital extension. The second-ranked factor was excessive workload, which leaves little time for ICT use. This suggests that officials frequently overwork with traditional responsibilities, which leaves little time for digital practice or learning. Ranking third, inadequate funding for ICT development exacerbates the problem even further. Fourth place went to the restricted availability of ICT tools for field work, which suggests that many of the tools available are office-centric and pay little attention to the requirements of extension activities at the field level. The organizational limitation with the lowest priority was the lack of explicit ICT usage policies and procedures.


       
From Table 4, It was found that with a Mean Garrett Score of 58.02, insufficient training on ICT use is the most severe limitation (Rank 1) in terms of capacity-related constraints. This indicates a serious lack of organized capacity building programs, which leaves officials ill-equipped to use the ICT resources at their disposal. The second-highest ranking is lack of digital skills (technical know-how), which suggests that even fundamental operating and troubleshooting abilities are frequently lacking. The fact that extension staff are not routinely exposed to new technologies and their uses in extension work is further supported by the third-ranked lack of exposure to new ICT tools and platforms.


       
From Table 5, It was found that with a Mean Garrett Score of 59.66, fear of making mistakes when using ICT was the most prevalent socio-psychological limitation (Rank 1). This demonstrates a lack of self-assurance and a fear of failing, which severely limits proactive ICT tool utilization. The second-highest ranking was resistance to switching from traditional ways, indicating that comfort with traditional tactics and ingrained work cultures continue to be obstacles to the digital transformation. Furthermore, the belief that ICT makes labour harder rather than easier comes in third, indicating a lack of knowledge of how ICT can streamline extension procedures. The need for focused behavioural change interventions is further demonstrated by the fourth and fifth-place rankings for low motivation to use ICT and fear or lack of confidence in using ICT, respectively.


       
From Table 6, It was found that with a Mean Garrett Score of 54.21, the most important constraint (Rank 1) on the infrastructure front was determined to be a lack of infrastructure. This demonstrates the ongoing failure to provide extension offices with a strong ICT infrastructure. The second ranked constraint was inadequate ICT tools, highlighting the restricted availability of necessary gadgets for efficient ICT use. Lastly, the third-place ranking of the digital divide between rural and urban extension offices indicates notable disparities in ICT access and capabilities between rural and urban areas.


       
Suggestions as perceived from extension functionaries for better utilisation of ICT tools and techniques-from the, It was found that the suggestions as perceived from the extension functionaries varied according to the hierarchy of their job role in their organisation. The senior level officials included CDAO, ADO and BAO, Mid-level officials were AAO and the junior level officials were BTM and ATM. Senior level officials suggested that Refresher courses to keep up with the rapid technological changes and appointment of dedicated ICT personnel at district/block level for technical support could lead to better utilisation. Mid-level officials suggested that regular hands-on training on emerging ICT tools and digital platforms, setting up ICT resource centres at block and district levels and developing a common digital platform for all extension functionaries could lead to more utilsation of ICT by extension functionaries. The junior level officials suggested that easy availability and accessibility of ICT tools in offices,Inclusion of ICT usage in performance appraisal and career growth and encouraging Participatory Content Creation like blogs, vlog making, video making could lead to better utilisation of ICT’s. It was concluded from the recommendations gathered that hierarchy-based requirements and attitudes were prevalent. Senior officials’ interest for long-term ICT integration and sustainability was demonstrated by their focus on policy-level interventions such as refresher training and the hiring of ICT personnel. Mid-level officials emphasised on training and infrastructure, demonstrating their need for coordination tools and real-world expertise.
               
As a reflection of their current operational constraints and motivational factors, junior officials prioritize career incentives while seeking accessibility. Extension functionaries might be more inclined to utilize ICT tools if they are connected to real career rewards, according to the proposal to incorporate ICT usage into performance reviews and career development. The focus placed by officials on blogs, vlogs and video production demonstrated a move away from traditional one-way communication and toward interactive, participatory digital extension.

According to the study, extension workers encounter several obstacles when it comes to using ICT. The most significant of these are capacity-related problems (inadequate training), technology problems (no troubleshooting assistance) and organizational limits (Low priority given to ICT skill enhancement). Moreover, sociopsychological obstacles including a fear of making mistakes and inadequate infrastructure impede the successful adoption of ICT.To increase ICT adoption at all levels, administrators and policymakers should concentrate on a multi-tiered ICT strategy. The policies should cover mid-level facilitation (training, shared platforms, resource centers), bottom-up participation (incentives, accessibility, content creation) and top-down support (appointments, refresher courses). Other important suggestions included making sure that infrastructure was accessible and fortifying technical support services. By addressing these limitations with focused interventions, extensionists will be more confident, effective and efficient in addition to being more ICT friendly. The public extension system’s bottom-up approach must be strengthened with a well-equipped, tech-savvy extension workforce, which will ultimately result in more effective and responsive agricultural advisory services.

Authors are grateful to the Department of Agricultural Extension and Communication,Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan Deemed to be University and the respondents extension functionaries serving in public sector for providing support and facilities to conduct the research. Further no financial support has been received from any institute/organisation. 
 
Disclaimers
 
The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.
 
Informed consent
 
All animal procedures for experiments were approved by the Committee of Experimental Animal care and handling techniques were approved by the University of Animal Care Committee.

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. No funding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis, decision to publish,or preparation of the manuscript.