<div>Background: Heart is the principal organ of circulatory system that pumps blood into the blood vessels and performs many vital functions. Studies on its development before birth of utmost important to safeguard the animal from the occurrence and consequences of various developmental anomalies. The ultrastructural details of ventricular architecture of heart especially in pre-natal sheep has not yet been reported. &nbsp;&nbsp; 
 
Methods: The collected foeti of sheep were divided into three age groups viz. early prenatal (up to 50 days), mid prenatal (51-100 days) and late prenatal (101 to 150 days). The samples from ventricles were processed for scanning electron microscopic study and subsequently, the samples were viewed and the photographs were taken in the facility available at Central Instrumentation Facility (CIF), OUAT, Bhubaneswar. The measurements of various parameters of ventricles were also taken at the ultrastructural level. The recorded data were subjected to routine statistical analysis. &nbsp;&nbsp; 
 
Result: It was observed that the endocardium of the ventricles consisted of a simple squamous epithelium. The endothelial cells were elongated in shape and arranged linearly on the surface of ventricles in 33 days prenatal non-descript sheep. The boundaries among the endothelial cells were indistinct in this age group. There was presence of pores among the endothelial cells on the surface of the ventricles. In late prenatal period, the endothelial cells of the ventricles became elongated in shape. The subendocardial layer consisted of connective tissue fibers and conducting purkinje fibers, which were quite predominant in the late prenatal period, i.e. at the age of 120 days of gestation. The endocardial fibers were distinctly coiled around the endothelial cells of the ventricles in this age group. The myocardium comprised of cylindrical and highly branched cardiac muscle fibers with pores all over the surface of the myocardium of the ventricles. Each muscle bundle in the myocardium consisted of muscle fibers extending parallel to each other longitudinally and that these fibers made collateral connections with each other in some regions. The papillary muscles were ridge like structures projecting into the lumen of the ventricles of heart. The chordae tendinae connected the papillary muscles and the bicuspid and tricuspid valves. The endothelial surface of the chordae tendinae consisted of elongated endothelial cells with pores among them. The pores of various sizes were arranged linearly in patches on the endothelial surface of the chordae tendinae of the ventricles especially in the late prenatal period, i.e. at about 105 days of gestation. &nbsp; &nbsp;</div>

<div>Scanning Electron Microscopic Studies on the Ventricular Architecture of Pre-natal Non-descript Sheep</div>

Background: Being the vital organ of circulatory system, the development of the heart before birth must be studied to safeguard the animal from the incidence of various developmental anomalies. The histochemical and biochemical details of cardiac architecture especially in pre-natal sheep have not yet been reported.&nbsp; &nbsp; 
 
Methods: The collected foeti of sheep were divided into three age groups viz. early prenatal (up to 50 days), mid prenatal (51-100 days) and late prenatal (101 to 150 days). The samples of heart were processed by routine paraffin technique and cryo technique and after section cutting, the slides were stained by various histochemical staining methods. Further, fresh pieces of the heart samples were also processed for getting tissue extracts for the biochemical analysis.&nbsp; &nbsp; 
 
Result: It was revealed that the PAS activity was observed in the cardiac wall, interatrial septum and interventricular septum in the sheep foeti at all stages of gestation. A variable degree of acid phosphatase activity was noted in the myocardium of heart wall in the sheep foeti at all stages of gestation. The lipid deposition also increased with advancing age in the myocardium of cardiac wall, interatrial septum and interventricular septum in the heart of sheep foeti. The activities of various enzymes like creatine kinase, alkaline phosphatase, serum glutamic-pyruvic transaminase and serum glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase were high in left ventricle than the right ventricle in the heart of sheep foeti. Certain protein bands of specific molecular weight appeared in the ventricular tissue at specific age of gestation in addition to a group of common proteins which appeared in ventricular tissue of sheep foeti in all age groups under study.

Histochemical and Biochemical Developmental Studies on the Heart in Pre-natal Non-descript Sheep (Ovis aries)

Background: No published data on two-dimensional echocardiographic quantitation of left ventricular size and function in Indian mongrel dogs is reported till date. 
 
Methods: Reference intervals for linear and area measurements of left ventricle size and function was generated in fifty healthy mongrel dogs (25 males, 25 females; mean age=1.59&plusmn;0.13 yr; mean body weight=16.66&plusmn;0.73 kg) using two-dimensional echocardiography. Dogs deemed&nbsp; healthy after thorough clinico-physiological, hematological, radiographic, electrocardiographic and echocardiographic evaluation were included in study.Relationship between two-dimensional linear and area measurements&nbsp; of left ventricle and body weight and, between same measurements obtained from different tomographic planes was studied using linear regression analysis. 
 
Result: Linear left ventricular measurements, left ventricular internal and external area, mitral valve orifice area showed significant (P&lt;0.001) positive correlation with body weight while fractional shortening and ejection fraction showed significant (P&lt;0.001) weak negative correlation with body weight. Left ventricular internal length in diastole, interventricular septum thickness and left ventricular internal dimension in systole and left ventricular free wall thickness in diastole were significantly (P&lt;0.01) higher in male dogs while mitral valve orifice area was significantly (P&lt;0.01) higher in female dogs. All linear measurements of left ventricular size obtained from different tomographic planes displayed&nbsp; significant (P&lt;0.001) correlation with each other.

Echocardiographic Quantitation of Left Ventricular Size and Function in Indian Mongrel Dogs

<div>Background: Heart is the central organ of circulatory system that pumps blood into the blood vessels and performs many vital functions. Its development before birth must be studied to safeguard the animal from the occurrence and consequences of various developmental anomalies. The detailed morphometry of different internal parameters of heart especially in pre-natal sheep has not yet been reported. &nbsp;&nbsp; 
 
Methods: The foeti of sheep were divided into two age groups viz. mid prenatal (51-100 days) and late prenatal (101 to 150 days) with fifteen animals in each age group. The various internal parameters were recorded by using digital weighing machine, graduated measuring cylinder, digital Vernier&rsquo;s calliper, non-stretchable nylon thread and graduated scale. The data recorded was statistically analysed by independent t test with IBM SPSS 25.0 version software.&nbsp; 
 
Result: The average thickness of left ventricular wall of heart was measured as 2.85&plusmn;0.15 mm and 4.28&plusmn;0.07 mm in mid prenatal and late prenatal stages respectively with significant (p&le;0.01) differences between the ages. Similarly, the average diameter of left atrio-ventricular opening of heart was measured as 2.06&plusmn;0.27 mm and 6.08&plusmn;0.36 mm in mid prenatal and late prenatal stages respectively with significant (p&le;0.01) differences between the ages. The average length of septal papillary muscle in right ventricle was measured as 1.12&plusmn;0.10 mm and 3.29&plusmn;0.21 mm in mid prenatal and late prenatal stages respectively with significant (p&le;0.01) differences between the ages. Further, the average length of moderator band in heart was measured as 1.45&plusmn;0.11 mm and 4.34&plusmn;0.23 mm in mid prenatal and late prenatal stages respectively with significant (p&le;0.01) differences between the ages. Similarly, the average length of chordae tendinae in right ventricle of heart was measured as 0.97&plusmn;0.09 mm and 3.50&plusmn;0.34 mm in mid prenatal and late prenatal stages respectively with significant (p&le;0.01) differences between the ages.&nbsp;</div>

<div>Age Wise Internal Morphometrical Studies on the Heart of Pre-natal Non-descript Sheep</div>

Background: The present study focused on the localization and comparative expression analysis of RFRP-3 gene in the hypothalamus and testis of adult male rats.&nbsp;&nbsp; 
 
Methods: Brain and testis tissue samples were collected from adult Wister rats and used for immunohistochemistry for identification and localization RFRP-3 producing neurons. The expression level of the RFRP-3 gene was assessed by Real-time PCR and compared with muscle tissue.&nbsp; 
 
Result: The results confirmed the presence of RFRP-3 secreting neurons in the hypothalamus and in the testes. Scattered RFRP-3 in cell bodies was identified primarily in the VMH, DMH and surrounding the third ventricle of the brain. In testis, RFRP-3 was detected in Leydig cells, Sertoli cells and germ cells. The expression level of RFRP-3 gene in the hypothalamus was observed to be significantly higher in hypothalamus than in testicular tissue (p&lt;0.01) of adult rats.&nbsp;

Comparative Expression Profile of RFRP-3 in Hypothalamus and Testis of Adult Rats

<div style="text-align: justify;">The present study was conducted on hippocampus of six adult Surti buffalo. Hippocampus was a &nbsp;small organ located within the medial temporal lobe of the brain. The hippocampus made a curve from the deep face of the piriform lobe around the thalamus and formed the caudal part of the floor of the lateral ventricle. It was separated deeply by the hippocampal fissure from the dentate gyrus. The two hippocampi were connected at their highest parts by transvers fibers which constituted the hippocampal commissure. The hippocampus was as long &ldquo;C&rdquo; or small &ldquo;Y&rdquo;shaped structure. The ventro-medial hippocampal surface had a deep groove, the hippocampal sulcus, which divided this surface into a lateral and medial surfaces. The ventricular surface of the hippocampus was covered with a thin layer of white matter, the alveus, which arises from the crus of the fornix, and was therefore continuous with the fimbria. Moreover, the uncus was not observed. Several equations showed significant (P&lt; 0.5) and positive co-relationship between the weight of hippocampus and the weight of brain. The ratio of weight of the hippocampus and weight of the brain was about 1: 37.&nbsp;</div>

Gross anatomical and biometrical parameters of hippocampus in Surti buffalo (Bubalus bubalis)

<div>Background: Aging is a biological process, which affects many body systems and increases susceptibility to disease that is associated with a reduction in immune response, a decline in cognitive function and a diminished functional reserve of the cardiovascular, pulmonary and renal systems. Diseases of heart or cardiovascular system represents a major component of geriatric medicine among which, myxomatous mitral valve disease is more common among geriatric dogs. The present study is keeping on record about the diagnosis of myxomatous mitral valve disease in geriatric dogs in and around Hyderabad, Telangana state. 
 
Methods: A total of 1695 geriatric dogs presented to various clinics including university veterinary clinical complex of Hyderabad, Telangana state during 2015 to 2020 were considered for this study. After confirming that they were free from any other systemic disease, medium to large size breed dogs above 8 years with the history of exercise intolerance, dyspnoea and cough were selected. Diagnostic protocol included, auscultation, chest x-ray and 2d-echocardiography to confirm mitral valve degeneration.&nbsp; 
 
Result: Myxomatous mitral valve disease was diagnosed in 427/695 geriatric dogs (61.43%) and were showing hyperechoeic thick mitral valve leaflets with kinking and prolapse. Further, echocardiography also revealed dilated left atrium and ventricle, hyperkinesis of interventricular septum, mitral valve degeneration and rupture of chordae tendineae with valuvular regurgitation.</div>

<div style="text-align:justify">Diagnosis of Myxomatous Mitral Valve Disease (MMVD) in Aged Dogs&nbsp;</div>

Background: Pseudopericarditis is a rare phenomenon encountered in day to day clinical practice. A handful of reports have been introduced on pseudopericarditis due to theleriosis. This case study is first of its type that aims to describe the echocardiographic characteristics in cattle and buffaloes with pseudopericarditis due to pulmonary and hepatic hydatid cysts. 
 
Methods: The selected animals were presented with clinical signs mimicking that of cardiac insufficiency i.e. brisket edema, jugular engorgement, open mouth breathing, however they did not show any cardiac abnormality upon physical and cardiovascular examination. Thoracic and abdominal ultrasound revealed presence of cystic densities in lungs and/ or liver. These cases were further evaluated using M-mode echocardiography to access the functioning of heart and to see the effect of existing cysts on cardiac function.&nbsp; 
 
Result: This study constitutes the first report on various changes in M-mode echocardiographic parameters in bovines affected with lung and/or liver cysts. M-mode echocardiographic findings were significantly reduced left ventricular internal diameter in both systole and diastole, significantly reduced left ventricular end diastolic and systolic volumes and further significant increase in left ventricular contractility indices as these are directly dependent on the dimensions of the left ventricle as compared to healthy cattle and buffaloes. From the present study it was inferred that presence of single or multiple cysts in the thoracic cavity or hepatic parenchyma by putting pressure at the base of the cranial and caudal vena cava leads to the clinical signs similar to that of cardiac insufficiency. It is further documented that changes in echocardiographic parameters are only seen when there is direct compression of the heart due to the presence of cysts.

&nbsp;

Characterizing M-mode Echocardiography Findings in Bovines Diagnosed with Pseudopericarditis: A Diagnostic Approach

<div>Background: Heart is the principal organ of circulatory system that pumps blood into the blood vessels and performs many vital functions. Its development before birth must be studied to safeguard the animal from the occurrence and consequences of various developmental anomalies. The detailed morphometry of different external parameters of heart especially in pre-natal sheep has not yet been reported. 
 
Methods: The foeti of sheep were divided into three age groups viz. early prenatal (up to 50 days), mid prenatal (51-100 days) and late prenatal (101 to 150 days) with fifteen animals in each age group. The various external parameters were recorded by using digital weighing machine, graduated measuring cylinder, digital Vernier&rsquo;s calliper, non-stretchable nylon thread and graduated scale. The data recorded was statistically analysed by one way ANOVA with IBM SPSS 25.0 version software.&nbsp; 
 
Result: It was revealed that the average width of heart at its base was 4.82&plusmn;0.22mm, 10.52&plusmn;0.72mm and 21.57&plusmn;1.03mm in early prenatal, mid prenatal and late prenatal stages respectively. The average dorso-ventral length of left ventricle of heart was measured as 4.82&plusmn;0.14mm, 12.07&plusmn;1.16mm and 25.58&plusmn;0.88mm in early prenatal, mid prenatal and late prenatal stages respectively. The average distance between the left longitudinal groove and cranial border of heart at base was measured as 2.93&plusmn;0.11mm, 6.38&plusmn;0.39mm and 9.78&plusmn;0.41mm in early prenatal, mid prenatal and late prenatal stages respectively. Similarly, the average distance between the right longitudinal groove and cranial border of heart at middle was measured as 1.96&plusmn;0.09mm, 5.01&plusmn;0.34mm and 8.31&plusmn;0.50mm in early prenatal, mid prenatal and late prenatal stages respectively. All these parameters recorded showed significant (p &le; 0.01) differences among the ages.</div>