Background: Zoletil has been used at different dose rates with or without preanaesthetics through intramuscular or intravenous routes in canine patients with varying results in other countries. The doses recommended by the manufacturer as well as researchers and the observations on various clinico-physiological and hemodynamic parameters are also highly variable. Keeping these points in mind, the present study was conducted to study anesthetic/sedative effects of intramuscular administration of Zoletil (20 mg/kg)&nbsp; and also to study the effect of glycopyrrolate (0.005 mg/kg)-xylazine (0.5 mg/kg) supplementation on Zoletil (10 mg/kg)-induced total intramuscular anesthesia in dogs.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: Fourteen canine patients were divided into two groups, viz., A and B, with seven animals in each group.In group A, Zoletil (tiletamine-zolazepam) at the dose rate of 20 mg/kg body weight was administered intramuscularly as an anaesthetic. In group B, preanesthetic glycopyrrolate at 0.005 mg/kg body weight was administered intramuscularly. After 15 minutes, xylazine at 0.5 mg/kg body weight was administered intramuscularly. After 15 minutes of preanesthetic administration in the B group, anaesthesia was induced intramuscularly with tiletamine-zolazepam @ 10 mg/kg body weight.&nbsp; 
 
Result: Zoletil (Tiletamine-zolazepam, 20 mg/kg IM) (group A) is only recommended for non-surgical/diagnostic (viz. Gastro-intestinal endoscopy)/minor surgical procedures in uncooperative dogs. An intramuscular anaesthetic protocol using glycopyrrolate (0.005 mg/kg)-xylazine (0.5 mg/kg) - Zoletil (10 mg/kg IM) (group B) is recommended for major surgical procedures of long duration. Neither the anaesthetic protocol produced any serious deleterious effect on hemato-biochemical and hemodynamic parameters; hence both protocols can be used safely in dogs as per the requirements of the procedure.

Effect of Glycopyrrolate-xylazine Supplementation on Zoletil-induced Total Intramuscular Anaesthesia in Dogs

<div>Background: Endotracheal intubation for inhalation anaesthesia in pigs is not considered a good anaesthetic method as it is technically difficult because of oral anatomy and the presence of excess tissues in the oropharyngeal region. Moreover, the major limitation of inhalation anaesthesia is that it requires the use of a cumbersome and costly anaesthetic machine, including a suitable breathing system and vaporizer and is the exposure of operating-room personnel to the pollution in the ambient air. Therefore, the present study was undertaken to evaluate the effect of propofol, ketamine and their combination &lsquo;Ketofol&rsquo; as a TIVA in pigs. 
 
Methods: The study was conducted in eighteen piglets of either sex. The piglets were randomly divided into three groups with six animals in each group. All the three groups were premedicated with Atropine sulphate @ 0.04mg/kg body weight and Xylazine Hydrochloride @ 1mg/kg body weight I.M. and Medazolam @ 0.5mg/kg body weight I.M. with minimum forcible restraint as pre-anaesthetic. In group-I, propofol @ 5mg/kg body weight, in group-II, ketamine @ 5mg/kg body weight and in group-III, ketofol @ 4mg/kg body weight was administered intravenously for induction after 15 minutes of pre-anaesthetic administration. Surgical anaesthesia was maintained for 90 minutes in all three groups viz. group-I, group-II and group-III with propofol @ 2.5mg/kg, ketamine @ 2.5mg/kg and ketofol @ 2mg/kg body weight respectively by intermittent bolus injection (IBI) technique. Clinical and cardiopulmonary profiles were evaluated before administration of the anaesthetic agent (0 minutes) then at 15, 30, 60 and 90 minutes during and after administration of anaesthetic agents to evaluate their anaesthetic effect. 
 
Result: The study revealed that induction time (IT), duration of analgesia (DOA), duration of recumbency (DOR) and recovery time (RT) interval showed better result in the combination of ketamine and propofol group as compared to propofol and ketamine-induced individual group. The temperature and respiration rate was significantly decreased in all the groups at 30 minutes during TIVA whereas heart rate was significantly increased in all the groups at 15 minutes. The combination of ketamine and propofol group showed a consistent diastolic pressure and systolic pressure during the entire period of anaesthesia. The SPO2 in the ketamine-induced group showed a significant decrease (P&lt;0.01) as compared to the propofol and ketofol group. It was concluded that the anaesthetic drug combinations resulted in smooth and uneventful induction with mild cardiopulmonary depressions and rapid recovery.</div>

Anaesthetic Effects of Propofol, Ketamine and their Combination (Ketofol) as Total Intravenous Anaesthesia (TIVA) in Pigs

<div>Background: Co-administration of anesthetic adjuvants as continuous rate infusion (CRI) can be controlled and hence is considered safer, as it can reduce the cardiopulmonary alterations in horses and is also adaptable in field conditions. Hence this study was planned to evaluate the effect of CRI of dexmedetomidine, ketamine, butorphanol and midazolam during thiopentone TIVA in horses. 
 
Methods: Thirty horses were randomly divided into five groups S, D, K, B and M having six animals in each. Premedication was done with Xylazine (1 mg/kg) and butorphanol (0.05 mg/kg) intravenously. Ketamine (2 mg/kg) and midazolam (0.2 mg/kg) were used IV for induction. CRI of normal saline alone, dexmedetomidine @ 2 &micro;g/kg/hr., butorphanol @ 0.2 mg/kg/hr., midazolam @ 0.2 mg/kg/hr. and ketamine @ 2 mg/kg/hr. were administered in groups S, D, B, M and K, respectively. Thiopentone sodium (5%) was given as a fast intravenous bolus whenever required to provide adequate anesthesia. Depth of anesthesia was evaluated on the based on clinical, haemato-biochemical, hemodynamic and endocrine variables.&nbsp; 
 
Result: First head lift, sternal recumbency time, standing time and quality of recovery showed no significant difference between the groups. Heart rate, RR, RT, SBP, DBP, CVP and MAP, BUN, creatinine, ALT, AST, cortisol, ACTH and ghrelin did not show significant variation among groups. Hb, PCV, TLC, TEC and neutrophil found significantly decreased and blood glucose remained significantly higher than the baseline value in all groups post induction. CRI of ketamine produced a better quality of recovery and thiopentone sparing effect and was found suitable for moderating stress response to anesthesia, inflammation and metabolic changes in horses administered with TIVA.</div>

Effect of Constant Rate Infusion of Different Anaesthetic Adjuvants Undergoing Thiopentone Sodium Total Intravenous Anaesthesia in Horses

Background: Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) consists of peel and rind (30-40% of total fruit weight), commonly discarded as waste. Nonetheless, several studies have shown the potential benefit of these watermelon parts. This study aimed to determine the correlation between the watermelon cultivation areas and their chemical composition, especially phenols and flavonoids. Watermelon peel and rind were obtained from Jember (WJ), Sragen (WS), Langkat (WL), Hulu Sungai Tengah (WHST) and Lombok Tengah (WLT).&nbsp; 
 
Methods: The total phenols and flavonoids were determined by using the colorimetric method. Furthermore, the antioxidant activity was determined by using DPPH and ABTS methods.&nbsp; 
 
Result: The highest total flavonoids, i.e. 41.86&plusmn;1,65 mgQE/100 g watermelon, was observed in the WHST rind. While WL peel showed the highest total phenols, i.e. 3.97&plusmn;0.02 mgGAE/g. The correlation analysis for all samples showed no significant relationship between the antioxidant activity and total flavonoids. However, a significant relationship was found between the DPPH-IC50 and total phenols with a correlation value of 0.47 (p&lt;0.01) for both watermelon parts peel and rind. In addition, watermelon peel contains higher total flavonoids compared to rind. But, there was no significant difference in the total phenols between the watermelon peel and rind. To conclude, both watermelon peel and rind obtained from five cultivation areas showed antioxidant activities contributed by the phenolic compounds.

Determination of Total Phenols, Total Flavonoids and Antioxidant Activity of Watermelon Peel and Rind from Several Cultivation Areas in Indonesia

Background: The study aimed to measure canine thyroid-stimulating hormone (cTSH) levels and their relationship with total triiodothyronine (TT3), total thyroxine (TT4) and free thyroxine (fT4) in healthy and hypothyroid dogs. 
&nbsp; 
Methods: The study involved 77 dogs, with 67 healthy and 10 hypothyroid. The serum concentration of cTSH was measured using a canine-specific TSH-ELISA kit, while TT3, TT4&nbsp;and fT4&nbsp;were measured using RIA kits. 
&nbsp; 
Result: The Mean serum concentration of cTSH, TT3, TT4&nbsp;and fT4&nbsp;in healthy dogs was 2.03&plusmn;0.01 &micro;IU/ml, 0.85&plusmn;0.04 nmol/l, 20.81&plusmn;0.79 nmol/l and 12.59&plusmn;0.35 pmol/l, respectively. Mean cTSH, TT3, TT4&nbsp;and fT4, concentration of hypothyroid dogs was found to be 2.16&plusmn;0.03 &micro;IU/ml, 0.93&plusmn;0.07 nmol/l, 9.01&plusmn;0.69 nmol/l and 5.87&plusmn;0.82 pmol/l, respectively. Interquartile range (i.e. 25th&nbsp;to 75th&nbsp;percentile) for thyroid hormone (cTSH, TT3, TT4&nbsp;and fT4) in healthy dogs (n = 67) were 1.96-2.11 &micro;IU/ml, 0.64-0.96 nmol/l, 16.73-25.00 nmol/l and 11.00-14.40 pmol/l, respectively and for hypothyroid dogs (n = 10) were 2.09-2.22 &micro;IU/ml, 0.73-1.12 nmol/l, 7.50-10.29 nmol/l and 4.35-7.45 pmol/l, respectively.&nbsp; A significant difference (P&lt;0.05) was recorded in healthy and hypothyroid dogs in cTSH, TT4&nbsp;and fT4. 
&nbsp;

Studies on Canine Thyroid-stimulating Hormone (cTSH), Total Triiodothyronine (TT3), Total Thyroxine (TT4) and Free Thyroxine (fT4) in Healthy and Hypothyroid Dogs

<div>Background: The non-availability of the sophisticated anaesthetic machine and the necessary equipment to administer inhalant anaesthetic in the field hospitals make their use practically unfeasible for the field veterinarians. Therefore, the present study was undertaken to evaluate the effect of propofol, ketamine and their combination &lsquo;Ketofol&rsquo; as a TIVA on certain haematological, serum biochemical and hormonal profiles in atropine and xylazine premedicated dogs.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: The study was conducted in eighteen clinical cases of dogs of either sex. The animals were randomly divided into three groups with six animals in each group. All the three groups were premedicated with Atropine sulphate @ 0.04mg/kg body weight and xylazine HCl @ 0.5mg/kg body weight intramuscularly. In group-I, propofol @ 5mg/kg body weight, in group-II, ketamine @ 5mg/kg body weight and in group-III, ketofol @ 4mg/kg body weight was administered intravenously for induction after 15 minutes of pre-anesthetic administration. Surgical anaesthesia was maintained for 90 minutes in all three groups viz. group-I, group-II and group-III with propofol @ 2.5mg/kg. b.w., ketamine @ 2.5mg/kg b.wt. and ketofol @ 2mg/kg b.wt. respectively by intermittent bolus injection (IBI) technique. Haematological, serum biochemical and hormonal profile were evaluated before administration of the anaesthetic agent (0 minutes) then at 15, 30, 60 and 90 minutes during and after administration of anaesthetic agents.&nbsp; 
 
Result: The study revealed that Hb, PCV and TEC were significantly decreased in all the groups at 60 mints and 30 mints respectively. The biochemical evaluation revealed that blood glucose level was significantly increased in all the groups until the end of the experiment. &nbsp;BUN and creatinine value was a significant increase in group-I and group-II than group-III at different time intervals up to the end of the experiment. In all the groups&rsquo; alanine aminotransferase (ALT) values significantly increased up to 60th minutes during TIVA whereas AST value was significantly increased in group-II at 30th and 60th minute of the experiment in compare to group-I and group-III. A higher level of cortisol values was recorded in group-I animals for the entire period of observation. There were no changes observed in the case of T3. Transient variables of haemato-biochemical have been reported following propofol, ketamine and their combination (ketofol) as total intravenous anaesthesia (TIVA). Thus, it has been concluded that diligent monitorization and electrolyte support are essential during the period of anaesthesia.&nbsp;</div>

<div>Effects of Propofol, Ketamine and their Combination (ketofol) as Total Intravenous Anesthesia (TIVA) on Haematological, Serum Biochemical and Hormonal Profile in the Surgical Management of Canine Patients</div>

<div>Background: Ceftiofur is a third-generation cephalosporin antibiotic developed exclusively for veterinary applications. Although not approved in China, ceftiofur is being used extensively in an extra-label manner to treat poultry infections. Black-bone silky fowl is a unique chicken breed which is different from the common chicken breeds in both morphology and other physiology. These differences may result in varied pharmacokinetic profiles. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the pharmacokinetics of ceftiofur (measured by ceftiofur and its active metabolites concentrations) in black-bone silky fowl following a single intravenous or intramuscular injection of ceftiofur sodium. 
 
Methods: Ceftiofur sodium was intravenously and intramuscularly given to six healthy black-bone silky fowl at the dose of 10 mg/kg body weight. A derivatization method was used to quantify the concentrations of ceftiofur and its active metabolites (expressed as desfuroylceftiofur acetamide) in plasma samples. A non-compartmental method was used to calculate the pharmacokinetics parameters. &nbsp; 
 
Results: The terminal half-life (t1/2lz) was calculated as 3.19&plusmn;0.28 and 3.36&plusmn;0.17 h following intravenous and intramuscular injections, respectively. After intravenous treatment, the total body clearance (Cl) and volume of distribution at steady state (VSS) were determined as 73.79&plusmn;5.83 ml/h/kg and 318.65&plusmn;30.06 ml/kg, respectively. After intramuscular injection, the peak concentration (Cmax; 22.55&plusmn;0.89 &igrave;g/ml) was observed at 1.67&plusmn;0.26 h and the absorption half-life (t1/2ka) and absolute bioavailability (F) were calculated as 0.40&plusmn;0.13 h and 93.03%&plusmn;7.07%, respectively. The current results demonstrated the rapid and complete absorption, however, poor distribution and rapid elimination of ceftiofur and its active metabolites in black-bone silky fowl.</div>

<div>Pharmacokinetics of Ceftiofur Sodium in Black-bone Silky Fowl after One Single Intravenous and Intramuscular Injection</div>

<div>Background: As cats undergo stress at the time of presentation before surgery and therefore sedation is required often. It is very difficult to choose a balanced anaesthetic protocol during the surgical intervention in the case of a cat. Therefore, the present study was undertaken to evaluate the effect of ketamine hydrochloride in combination with midazolam, dexmedetomidine and butorphanol as balanced anaesthesia on clinico-physiological, haematological, serum biochemical profile in the surgical management of cats undergoing neutering. 
&nbsp; 
Methods: The study was performed on 18 clinical cases of cats which were brought to the Teaching Veterinary Clinical Complex, College of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry (CVSc and AH), Central Agricultural University (CAU), Selesih, Aizawl, Mizoram for elective surgery such as neutering. Cats were randomly divided into 3 equal groups, i.e. Gr. A, Gr. B and Gr. C. Animals were premedicated with glycopyrrolate @ 0.01 mg/kg, i/m. After 10 minutes of premedication, in Gr. A ketamine hydrochloride @15 mg/kg and midazolam @ 0.5 mg/kg, in Gr. B ketamine hydrochloride @10 mg/ kg and dexmedetomidine@ 5 mcg /kg and in Gr. C ketamine hydrochloride @ 5 mg/kg, dexmedetomidine@ 5 mcg/kg and butorphanol @ 0.2 mg/kg was administered intramuscularly. Clinico-physiological and haemato-biochemical profiles were evaluated at 0 minute (baseline), then at 15, 30 and 60 minutes after administration of anaesthetic agents to evaluate their anaesthetic effect.&nbsp; 
 
Result: In the case of time for induction, the quality of induction, assessment of peri-operative analgesia, depth of anaesthesia and quality of recovery there was no significant difference among all three groups. In Gr. B, animals showed significantly higher duration of recumbency (DOE) and recovery. The assessment of peri-operative analgesic effect among the groups revealed that analgesia during the perioperative period appeared best in Gr. C protocol. In regards to depth of anaesthesia, ketamine hydrochloride in combination with dexmedetomidine and butorphanol group showed a better result. Rectal temperature decreased significantly (P&gt;0.05) up to 60th minutes in Gr. A, but it remained within the physiological range. Heart rate raised significantly (p&lt;0.05) from the baseline (0 minutes) onwards and decreased significantly (p&lt;0.05) till the end (60 minutes) of the study in Gr. C. The respiration rate was significantly (p&lt;0.01) different in between time intervals for all three groups. No significant difference was observed on haemato-biochemical observation except glucose level which significantly increased after induction of anaesthesia. In conclusion, treatment with ketamine hydrochloride in combination with dexmedetomidine and butorphanol led to acceptable sedation and mild changes in clinico-physiological, haematological, serum biochemical profile in comparison to the other two groups.</div>

Evaluation of Ketamine Hydrochloride in Combination with Midazolam, Dexmedetomidine and Butorphanol as Balanced Anaesthesia in Cats

Background: The present study was conducted to evaluate the anaesthetic efficacy of butorphanol, dexmedetomidine or acepromazine in combination with thiopentone sodium for inducing general anaesthesia in healthy dogs. 
 
Methods: Eighteen adult dogs of either sex were randomly divided into three groups (ButTHIO, DexTHIO and AceTHIO) with six animals in each. Ten minutes prior to the anaesthetic administration, all the dogs were administered with glycopyrrolate @ 0.02 mg/kg I/M. The animals of group ButTHIO, DexTHIO and AceTHIO were premedicated intramuscularly with butorphanol @ 0.3 mg/kg b.wt., dexmedetomidine @ 10 &micro;g/kg b.wt. and acepromazine @ 0.4 mg/kg b.wt. respectively. General anaesthesia was induced with thiopentone sodium @ 18 mg/kg b.wt. intravenously. Onset of sedation and anaesthesia, degree of analgesia, extent of muscle relaxation, duration of anaesthesia, complete recovery from anaesthesia and different reflexes were recorded for evaluation of anaesthetic efficacy. 
 
Result: The onset of sedation and induction of anaesthesia was quicker in group DexTHIO followed by AceTHIO and ButTHIO. Duration of anaesthesia and complete recovery were significantly (P&lt;0.05) longer in group DexTHIO as compared to group ButTHIO and AceTHIO. Analgesia was excellent in all the groups but persisted for longer duration in animals of group DexTHIO. All the reflexes abolished completely with longer duration of muscle relaxation in group DexTHIO. It could be concluded that thiopentone sodium in combination with either dexmedetomidine or butorphanol or acepromazine can be used safely for inducing surgical anaesthesia in dogs. However, dexmedetomidine-thiopentone combination produced prolonged duration of anaesthesia with better quality for long surgical procedure in dogs.

Comparative Anaesthetic Evaluation of Butorphanol, Dexmedetomidine or Acepromazine in Combination with Thiopentone Sodium for Inducing General Anaesthesia in Healthy Dogs

Background: Zoletil is a proprietary combination of equal parts of tiletamine and zolazepam with relatively short duration of action which necessitates administration of several maintenance doses. Zoletil combined with dexmedetomidine and fentanyl citrate in goats has not been reported in Indian literature. Therefore, the objective of present study was to compare the sedative, analgesic, anaesthetic efficacy and suitability of peanaesthetics in combination with intravenous zoletil anaesthesia in goats. 
 
Methods: Eighteen healthy non-descript goats of either sex, weighing between 20-25 kg were randomly divided into three groups (Group Z, DexZ and FentZ) with six animals in each. Atropine sulphate @ 0.04 mg/kg b.wt. intramuscularly was administered 10 min. prior to anaesthetic trail in all the animals of different groups. The animals of group Z received Zoletil alone @ 5.5 mg/kg by slow intravenous injection and kept as control. Ten minutes later, in groups DexZ and FentZ, dexmedetomidine @ 5 mcg/kg b.wt. and fentanyl citate @ 10 mcg/kgb.wt. were administered slow intravenously respectively. Anaesthesia was induced 10 minutes later by slow bolus dose of Zoletil @ 5.5 mg/kg b. wt. intravenously in animals of all the groups till the pedal reflex abolished.&nbsp; 
 
Result: The onset of sedation and induction of anaesthesia was quicker in group DexZ followed by FentZ and Z. Duration of anaesthesia and complete recovery time were significantly (P&lt;0.05) longer in group DexZ as compared to group FentZ and Z. Analgesia was excellent in all the groups but of longer duration in animals of group DexZ. To conclude dexmedetomidine-zoletil combination produced prolonged duration of anaesthesia with excellent muscle relaxation suitable for long surgical procedure.&nbsp;

Comparative Evaluation of Dexmedetomidine and Fentanyl Citrate as Preanaesthetic to Intravenous Zoletil Anaesthesia in Goats (Capra hircus)