<div>Background: Entomopathogenic fungi are microorganisms that specifically infect and often kill insects and other arthropods. Most are non-pathogenic to plants and relatively non-toxic to humans and animals. Use of fungal entomopathogens can be an alternative to insecticides and could help in bio-intensive pest management. The current study aimed to study the pathogenicity of entomopathogenic fungal isolates against two Spotted Spider Mites, Tetranychus urticae Koch in tomato and broad Mite, Polyphagotarsonemus latus (Banks) in chilli.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: An extensive survey for the natural occurrence of entomopathogenic fungi on insects and mites was made in different agro climatic regions of Tamil Nadu during 2013 and 2014. Survey revealed the occurrence of two entomopathogenic fungi viz., Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin and Metarhizium flavoviride Gams and Rozsypal var. minus. Laboratory experiment was conducted to evaluate the pathogenicity of fourteen isolates of Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae and Lecanicillium lecanii against Tetranychus urticae and Polyphagotarsonemus latus.&nbsp; 
 
Result: In opposition to T. urticae, the Beauveria bassiana isolate Bb 112 showed the highest toxicity of all the other isolates tested, with low LC50 value of 0.6 x106 spores ml-1 and LT50 of 92.60h. Against P. latus, Bb 112 had high virulence with low LC50 value of 0.3x106 spores ml-1 and LT50 value of 92.32h. Hence, there is potential for use of entomopathogenic fungi in the field conditions as an alternate control method in combating the insect pests and other arthropod pests since they are considered natural mortality agents and are environmentally safe.</div>

<div>Entomopathogenic Fungal Screening against Two Spotted Spider Mites, Tetranychus urticae Koch in Tomato and Broad Mite, Polyphagotarsonemus latus (Banks) in Chilli</div>

<div>Background: Two-spotted spider mite,&nbsp;Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae) is a destructive, polyphagous and cosmopolitan pest infesting a wide range of vegetables. Farmers frequently use acaricides in the vegetable ecosystem for mite management leading to increased probability for the development of resistance against acaricides in mite species. Literature about resistance in T. urticae to novel acaricides is scanty from this region. Hence, this study was aimed to evaluate the magnitude of acaricide resistance in T. urticae populations on vegetable crops from Southern districts of Tamil Nadu against seven acaricides. The role of detoxification enzymes in conferring bio-chemical resistance in the mite species was also studied.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: The laboratory experiments were conducted at completely randomized design (CRD) during 2019-2021 in central instrumentation laboratory, Department of Agricultural Entomology, Agricultural College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Madurai. The level of resistance in T. urticae populations to fenazaquin, propargite, spiromesifen, buprofezin, fenpropathrin, diafenthiuron and chlorfenapyr was evaluated following the leaf dip bioassay technique. The activity of the detoxifying enzymes viz., Glutathione S Transferase (GST), Mixed Function Oxidase (MFO) and Carboxylesterase (CarE) were estimated.&nbsp; 
 
Result: Fenazaquin was highly toxic to T. urticae, which recorded a low level of resistance (2.00 to 8.62-fold).&nbsp;T. urticae exhibited a low to moderate level of resistance to fenpropathrin (1.86 to 37.28-fold), moderate to a high level of resistance to diafenthiuron (15.81 to 50.53-fold), high level of resistance to propargite (45.16 to 65.10-fold) and chlorfenapyr (54.67 to 100.14-fold) and extremely high level of resistance to spiromesifen (193.04 to 452.61-fold) and buprofezin (377.97 to 514.44-fold). Among all the test populations, the highly resistant DAmRg population exhibited the highest specific activity of the detoxifying enzymes, viz., GST (26.98 nmoles ml-1 min-1 mg of protein-1), MFO (5.07 nmoles ml-1 min-1 mg of protein-1) and CarE (827.90 nmoles ml-1 min-1 mg of protein-1). The CarE activity was found to be positively correlated with highly resistant acaricide, propargite (r = 0.995) and MFO activity with buprofezin having an extremely high level of resistance (r = 0.997). This preliminary knowledge would be instrumental in framing the acaricide resistant management (ARM) strategies.</div>

Magnitude of Resistance and Metabolism of Acaricides in Two-spotted Spider Mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch on Vegetables in Southern Districts of Tamil Nadu

<div>Background: Entomopathogenic fungus (EPF) can provide safe and efficient insect pest management. Temperature, relative humidity (RH), light, air, nutritional content and host physiological condition are all elements that impact the proliferation and virulence of entomopathogenic fungus. The current study aimed to evaluate the effect of different temperatures on germination, growth, sporulation of entomopathogenic fungi and on their pathogenicity against Tetranychus urticae Koch was studied.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: Laboratory experiment was conducted to study the impact of temperature on germination, radial growth and sporulation of five entomopathogenic fungal isolates viz., B. bassiana (Bb 111), B. bassiana (Bb 112), B. bassiana (Bb 113), B. bassiana (Bb 114) and M. flavoviride var. minus. Virulence of five entomopathogenic fungal isolates subjected to different temperature against T. urticae also evaluated through laboratory bioassay techniques. 
 
Result: Results one valuation of entomopathogenic fungal isolates with four different temperatures at 20&deg;C, 25&deg;C, 30&deg;C and 35&deg;C showed that 25&deg;C was optimum for germination, radial growth and sporulation. Maximum germination was recorded with the entomopathogenic isolate Beauveria bassiana (Bb 112) (95.67%) at 25&deg;C. Interestingly, at 25&deg;C all the B. bassiana isolates showed a radial growth of more than 50 mm with the highest recorded as 84.67 mm by B. bassiana (Bb 111).&nbsp; Maximum spore production was observed with B. bassiana (Bb 112) at 25&deg;C (1.63 x 106 spores ml-1) followed by B. bassiana (Bb 111) (1.45 x 106 spores ml-1).&nbsp; It was also the most pathogenic against T. urticae at 25 and 30&deg;C. The isolate Bb112 grown at 25&deg;C caused higher mortality of 97.57 per cent against T. urticae. From the findings the isolates of B. bassiana (Bb 112) and (Bb 111) were found promising bio control agent against T. urticae with varying temperature.</div>

Laboratory Evaluation of Temperature Effects on Germination, Radial Growth and Sporulation of Entomopathogenic Fungi and on Their Pathogenicity to Red Spider Mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch

<div>Backgound: The black ladybird beetle, Stethorus sp. is a generalist predator whose larvae and adult prey on all developmental stages of the two-spotted red spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch. In order to develop a bological control program of T. urticae in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam , the predaotry efficacy of Stethorus sp. on T. urticae had been investigated. 
 
Methods: The investigation was conducted under the laboratory and net-house conditions at the College of Agriculture, Can Tho University. 
 
Result: Under laboratory conditions, fourth instar larvae exhibited the highest predation rate, while second instar larvae showed the lowest. Second instar larvae consumed an average of 65.63 eggs, 26.13 larvae, or 22.38 adults per day. In contrast, fourth instar larvae consumed 183.63 eggs, 88.63 larvae, or 73.63 adults per day. Adult female beetles consumed 149.38 eggs, 75.63 larvae, or 46.5 adults per day, while adult males showed lower consumption rates of 88 eggs, 62.25 larvae, or 36.13 adults per day. Under net house conditions, one pair of black ladybird beetles provided optimal control of the two-spotted red spider mites at a density of 56 mites per plant, with a control efficacy of 97.07 percent at 5 days post-release. At a red spider mite density of 168 individuals per plant, 4 and 6 pairs of black ladybird beetles demonstrated superior control efficacy of 93.02 percent and 99.54 percent respectively at 5 days post-release. 
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Predatory Efficacy of the Black Ladybird Beetle, Stethorus sp. against the Two-spotted Red Spider Mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch on Rose Plants

<div>Background: African marigolds an important medicinal and ornamental plant is grown throughout the world. The two spotted red spider mite,&nbsp;Tetranychus urticae is one of the most destructive pests of the crop. 
 
Methods: Estimation of various minerals and stress measures of T. urticae infested and non infested leaves was performed in two seasons namely summer and winter under both screen house and field conditions. ANOVA was analysed under two factorial Completely Randomized Design. Mite population per leaf was correlated with each biochemical measures and statistical significance of data was analyzed. 
 
Result: Significantly lower nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium content was recorded in infested (2.01, 0.307, 1.509% dry weight) leaves as compared to uninfested leaves (2.93, 0.387, 1.874% dry weight) respectively. Summer season reported higher per cent loss in mineral content as compared to the winter season. The content of total phenol and proline was significantly more in infested leaves (18.75 mg/g, 57.07 &micro;/100 g) as compared to the uninfested leaves (11.42 mg/g and 47.50 &micro;/100 g). The per cent increase of phenol and proline ranged from (43.90 and 20.81%) in summer and (42.90 and 17.45%) in winter, respectively.</div>

Biochemical Estimations of Tetranychus urticae Koch Infested Marigold Leaves in Summer and Winter Seasons under Screen House and Field Conditions

<div>The two-spotted spider mite is a destructive phytophagous of agricultural and horticultural crops. The disruptive selection had fulfilled on T. urticae females in 20 inbred generations. The selection of individual female genotypes was carried out according to a lethality rate of diagnostic concentrations of each acaricides. Malathion and fenpyroximate strains performed for comparative toxicity to five acaricides belonging to different chemical groups: dimethoate, bifenthrin, pyridaben, brompropylate and abamectin. The results allow us to conclude the malathion and fenpyroximate in mites with resistance alleles to one of these acaricides showed that, normalization of biochemical processes on the mitochondrial membrane depends on the function of the transport plasma membrane system. The expression of the malathion resistance gene was completely suppressed by the butyphos esterase inhibitor, while fenpyroximate resistance gene &nbsp;was not manifested in the inhibition of PBO activity of monooxygenases enzymes.</div>

<div>Comparative Toxicity and Synergism in Two-Spotted Spider Mite (Tetranychus urticae) Under Disruptive Selection</div>

Background: Investigation of predatory traits, which are mostly unexplored, such as prey consumption, reproduction rate and searching propensity, could offer crucial information for the selection of creative control agents.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: In this study, two sets of experiments were carried out, the first set of which was intended to assess the effectiveness of the search and the second set for the functional response.&nbsp; 
 
Result: The intake of T. urticae by S. pauperculus, Oligota sp. and A. longispinosus dramatically increased as predator density increased from one to eight, according to research on searching efficiency. However, when predator number increased, prey consumption per predator declined. The amount of prey consumed by the larvae did not increase despite the prey density quadrupling. Prey consumption by predators increased as prey density increased, while prey consumption as a percentage dropped as prey density increased, according to a functional response. When the number of prey increased from 50 to 800, the area where predators were discovered reduced.

Assessment of Searching Efficiency and Functional Response of Acarophagous Species against Red Spider Mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae)

<div>Background: Urtica cannabina, an unconventional forage, is widely distributed in northern China. It has high nutritional values that make it suitable for the ruminant&rsquo;s feeding requirments as compared to Leymus chinensis. The current study was designed to evaluate varying ratios of Urtica cannabina and Leymus chinensis in the feeding diet and to see the effects on rumen fermentation and gas production in vitro.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: The study was designed into five treatments based on the different ratios of U. cannabina and L. chinensis: 0:100, 30:70, 50:50, 70:30 and 100:0 categorized into five groups from A-E. To detect the rumen fermentation parameters, the culture medium was collected at 1, 3, 6, 12 and 24 h.&nbsp; 
 
Result: Gas production of groups A and C was increased than other groups at 24h (P&lt;0.05), whereas the rate of gas production (c) was also increased in group A (P&lt;0.05). The pH values at 1, 3, 6 and 24 h were increased in groups A and C with higher values in group C at 24h (P&lt;0.05). The ammonia concentration was increased in groups D and E at 3, 6, 12 and 24 h, with the lower values in group C at 24h (P&lt;0.05). The concentration of bacterial and protozoal proteins was also observed higher in groups A and C at 1 and 24 h, with highest value in group C at 24 h (P&lt;0.05). In summary, as for Urtica cannabina to Leymus chinensis ratios are concerned, 50:50 is an optimal ratio for rumen fermentation in vitro, which increases the gas production and microbial protein synthesis.</div>

In vitro Study of Urtica cannabina and Leymus chinensis on Rumen Microbial Fermentation and Gas Production

Background: Considering the increasingly high cost of poultry feed and the economic aspects of poultry rearing, search for organic feed supplements for optimal growth performance along with maintaining the health status of poultry has emerged as a challenge for animal nutritionists all over the world. Over the years, medicinal herbs have fascinated a lot of consideration for their important role as alternatives to antibiotic growth promoters in animals. These compounds display some important pharmacological and growth promoting effects in animals. With this background, exploratory research was designed to study the effects of a locally available medicinal herb, Urtica dioica at different levels on the performance, serum biochemical, immune response and oxidative parameters of broilers. 
&nbsp; 
Methods: A total of 120-day old commercial broiler chicks were purchased; randomly distributed into four treatment groups. The groups were distributed as; group T1-control offered basal diet, groups T2, T3, T4&nbsp;offered basal diet supplemented with Urtica dioica leaf powder @ 1, 1.5 and 2% respectively on dry matter basis. A growth trial of five weeks followed by a metabolic trial of seven days was conducted at the end of the experiment. The economics for broiler production was also calculated. In addition to this different biochemical, immune and oxidative parameter were also analyzed at the end of the experiment following standard procedures. 
&nbsp; 
Result: Significant improvements in various production parameters viz. body weight, FCR, digestibility of DM, CP were observed in birds fed nettle as feed additive in comparison to control, however non-significant changes in the values of feed intake, digestibility of CF, EE and NFE among treatment groups was also recorded. On calculating the economics, a lower production cost per kg live weight gain and a higher profit/bird was calculated for treatment groups fed nettle as feed additive. Significant improvements in various biochemical, immune and oxidative parameters were also observed in birds of phytogenic supplemented groups in comparison to control.

Effect of Herb Urtica dioica as Feed Additive on Growth Performance, Serum Biochemical, Immune Response and Oxidative Parameters of Broilers

Background: Nettle roots (Urtica dioica) are considered promising plants for treating different conditions, including liver ailments. Accordingly, we aimed to ascertain the protective implication of aqueous extract of nettle roots versus hepatotoxicity in male albino rats exposed to TiO2&nbsp;NPs. 
 
Methods: Here, 48 adult male albino Wistar rats were randomly allocated to six groups (8 rats/group). The first group operated as controls. The second and third groups were administered U. dioica (100, 200 mg/kg b.w) orally. The fourth group was orally administrated TiO2&nbsp;NPs&nbsp;(300 mg/kg b.w). The fifth and sixth groups were treated orally with (U. dioica 100, 200+ TiO2&nbsp;NPs). After four weeks, biochemical, histopathological and immunohistochemical examinations of the blood samples and liver tissue were carried out. 
 
Result: The outcomes manifested that exposure to TiO2&nbsp;NPs significantly increased ALT, AST, ALP, LDH and MDA, total protein and bilirubin, whereas albumin levels, SOD and GSH decreased significantly, causing liver tissue damage. In addition to higher expression of caspase 3. U. dioica treatment improved the physiological, histological and immunohistochemical results of damage caused by exposure to TiO2&nbsp;NPs. This study shows that chronic administration of U. dioica protects against TiO2&nbsp;NPs-induced hepatotoxicity in rats. These positive effects may appear because U. dioica contains antioxidants. 
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Hepatoprotective Effect of Nettle Root Extract (Urtica dioica) on Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticle-Stimulated Hepatotoxicity in Male Albino Rats