<div>Background: Limited biosecurity measures in smallholder poultry facilities expose birds to various pathogens as a result, poultry products particularly raw ones are reported to be responsible for cases of human foodborne diseases. The aim of the study was to profile and characterise the zoonotic bacterial pathogens in water, poultry mouth and rectal swabs in a value chain project of Capricorn district, Limpopo Province, South Africa. 
 
Methods: A total of 74 samples comprising of 14 water samples, 60 mouth and rectal swab samples were collected from the farms. The samples were screened for the presence of Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp. and Shigella spp. through selective cultivation.&nbsp; 
 
Result: The study revealed that the water resources, mouth and rectal swab samples of chickens were contaminated by coliform bacteria. Escherichia coli and Klebsiella spp., were dominant isolates. E. coli strains that were isolated from the water sources, mouth and rectal swabs of the chickens showed strong resistance to gentamycin, neomycin, penicillin, streptomycin, tetracycline, erythromycin, nalidixic acid, ciprofloxacin and ampicillin. K. pneumoniae showed resistant to neomycin; penicillin; erythromycin while K. oxytoca and E. absuriae showed similar antibiotic resistance profile as penicillin, erythromycin, nalidixic acid and ampicillin.</div>

Presence of Coliforms in Water, Poultry Mouth and Rectal Swabs from Selected Smallholder Poultry Farming Projects of Capricorn District, South Africa

The present study analysed the changes in the quantity and composition of biogas produced from the excreta of swine, rabbit and poultry during monsoon and summer seasons. The highest volume of biogas production was observed in rabbit excreta (0.0813 &plusmn; 0.0007m3), followed by poultry excreta (0.0778 &plusmn; 0.0005 m3) and swine excreta (0.0738 &plusmn; 0.0004 m3).&nbsp; Methane concentration was higher in biogas produced from rabbit excreta (70.96 &plusmn; 0.19) followed by that from poultry excreta (66.87 &plusmn; 0.21) and swine excreta (62.41 &plusmn; 0.20), whereas carbon dioxide concentration was highest in swine excreta (28.07 &plusmn; 0 .32) followed by rabbit excreta (24.54 &plusmn; 0.15) and poultry excreta (22.14 &plusmn; 0.14). The biogas production was significantly higher (P&lt;0.01) in the summer season compared to monsoon in all three substrates. It was observed that daily mean temperature had a significant positive relationship and relative humidity had a negative relationship with the quantity of biogas produced (P&lt;0.01). The gas production also had a significant positive correlation with the temperature and pH of the digesta.

Seasonal Variations in Biogas Production from Excreta of Monogastric Farm Animals under Tropical Climate

<div>Background: Paratyphoid infection of poultry is caused by non-host adapted motile salmonellae and are responsible for numerous cases of food borne illness worldwide. The present study was carried out from July 2019 to February 2020 in Jabalpur to know the occurrence and pathology of paratyphoid bacteria in poultry. 
&nbsp; 
Methods: Whole blood agglutination test was performed to know the prevalence of salmonellosis in and areas surrounding Jabalpur region and pooled fecal samples were collected from poultry farms to perform microbe culture and biochemical characterization. Serotyping of Salmonella isolates was done using polyvalent antisera. Necropsy examination was conducted to observe gross and histopathological lesions.&nbsp; 
 
Conclusion: Rapid whole blood agglutination test determined the percent prevalence of Salmonella as 28.0% from 25 private poultry outlets. The percent prevalence of salmonellosis by collecting pooled fecal samples from 15 broiler and 11 layer farms was recorded as 20.0% and 45.4% respectively. Salmonellosis was recorded in 1.58% of total necropsy cases of birds examined for gross and histopathological studies. Polyvalent antisera diagnosed 27.27% motile paratyphoid salmonellae, out of which 18.18% tested positive for Salmonella Enteritidis while 9.09% tested positive for Salmonella Typhimurium. Birds with paratyphoid infection showed hepatomegaly, discoloration, hemorrhagic and necrotic foci in liver and various grades of hemorrhagic to catarrhal enteritis were recorded.</div>

​Incidence and Pathology of Paratyphoid Infection in Poultry

Animal raising activities have become one of the enormously flourishing sectors in Indian agriculture. Within livestock sector, the poultry husbandry started from a backyard venture and became a commercial agro-business generating revenue to the farmers. Poultry farming, comprising of Layer farming and Broiler farming, not only enhances food security, but has also been a remunerative source of income. The present paper is an attempt to give an overview of poultry farming in India, with special reference to Punjab. The poultry farming is a complete scientific process as it includes breeding, brooding, incubation, housing, rearing and feeding. The study revealed that poultry farming has been rising 5 times more than that of the agriculture crop production, which in turn pushed India to attain a substantial position in the world market. The percentage of poultry birds, production of eggs and meat registered an upswing. Due to its peculiarities of low investment, short gestation period and adaptability with different climatic conditions, it&rsquo;s in the reach of the farmers.&nbsp;

Poultry Farming in India with Special Reference to Punjab: An Overview

<div>Background: Salmonellosis is of great concern among the infectious diseases of poultry and has been responsible for serious economic losses to the poultry producers and a shift in Salmonella serotypes has been evident in recent years. Study was carried out to know the occurrence and pathology of Salmonellae infection in poultry along with their multi-drug resistance. 
 
Methods: Samples for study were collected from 26 organized poultry farms. To determine the presence of Salmonella in the farms, microbial culture from fecal swabs and pooled fecal samples was carried out for isolation of bacteria. Molecular detection of Salmonella isolates was also performed using direct PCR. Biofilm producing ability of the bacteria was also assessed and antibiotic sensitivity test was done to detect the resistance of bacterial isolates. 
 
Result: Salmonellosis in broiler and layer farms was recorded as 20% and 45.4% respectively and in 1.58% of the necropsy cases through microbial culture. Molecular detection of Salmonella isolates by PCR targeting invA gene was confirmed in 13.33% broiler farms and 36.3%-layer farms. Further detection of Salmonella Enteritidis was performed by PCR targeting ent gene and 11.11% positivity was determined. Biofilm producing ability of the bacteria was found 40% using biofilm assay. Serological examination using polyvalent antisera diagnosed 27.27% isolates as motile salmonellae. During necropsy of positive cases gross lesions comparable to salmonellosis were noted in liver, intestine, spleen and ovary. Multi-drug resistant (MDR) pattern was observed with highest resistance towards oxytetracycline, streptomycin followed by amikacin, amoxicillin and enrofloxacin. The presence of multiple drug resistant Salmonella in chicken has rendered the food chain unsafe from farm to table and hence continuous surveillance of the disease should be encouraged.</div>

Occurrence of Multi-drug Resistant Avian Salmonellae in Commercial Poultry

<div>Background: Poultry enteritis is an important multifactorial disease. Chicken Astrovirus (CAstV) usually associated with enteritis. The aim of this study was to investigate the occurrence of CAstV in poultry enteritis cases, its molecular characterization, phylogenetic analysis and gross and microscopic examination of intestine and liver specimen affected with CAstV. 
 
Methods: Total 604 dead poultry birds from commercial poultry farms affected with enteritis were examined for presence of CAstV. Intestinal samples of four birds were pooled to make one biological sample. CAstV was detected by reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR) using ORF-1b gene specific primers. Molecular characterization was carried out by partial gene sequencing. 
 
Result: CAstV was detected in 20.52% (31/151) of samples. Highest prevalence (49.29%) was observed in 0-1 week old chicks. The partial molecular characterization revealed high similarity of the nucleotide sequence from India (97% to 93%) and from USA, Brazil, Poland and Korea (94 to 92%). Further similarity of amino acid sequences of CAstV from India (100% to 98%) and from USA, Brazil, Poland and Korea (98 to 97%) was observed. Histopathological examination revealed villous atrophy, congestion and atrophic cystic glands in sub-mucosa of intestine. Further severe congestion and hemorrhages along with infiltration of inflammatory cells in liver parenchyma was observed.</div>

Molecular Detection and Phylogenetic Analysis of Chicken Astrovirus Associated with Poultry Enteritis

<div>Background: Use of organic manures to meet the nutrient requirement of the crop would be an inevitable practice for sustainable agriculture. Since organic manures generally improve the physical, chemical and biological properties along with conserving soil moisture and thus resulting in enhanced crop productivity along with maintaining the quality of crop production. Organic farming in recent years is gaining significance due to the realization of inherent advantages it confers in sustaining crop production and also in maintaining dynamic soil nutrient status and safe environment. Organic farming is also concerns to produce the quality food and human health, so that this research and studied the interaction effect of vermicompost and poultry manure on groundnut crop in Chitrakoot condition. 
 
Methods: The experiment was conducted at Rajola Farm of the Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi Chitrakoot Gramodaya Vishwavidyalaya, Chitrakoot in kharif 2019. The present experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of different levels of poultry manure and vermicompost applications. The morphological and biochemical parameters were evaluated in experimental farm and departmental laboratory. 
 
Result:&nbsp;The combination dose of V3P3&nbsp;(6 ton ha-1&nbsp;vermicompost and 4 ton ha-1 poultry manure) was found to be best giving the maximum values. The effect of V3 on the number of pod per plant and number of seed per plant was maximum 15.20 and 3.22 and effect of P3&nbsp;on the number of pod per plant and number of seed per plant was maximum 14.156 and 3.11 respectively. The interaction of vermicompost and poultry manure of the V3P3&nbsp;combination was recorded maximum 17.13 per plant. Seed per pod interaction of vermicompost and poultry manure of the V3P3 combination also recorded maximum 3.66 per pod. Effect of vermicompost and poultry manure on 100 kernel weight was maximum in V3 (42.55 g) and P3&nbsp;(41.00 g) respectively. The shelling percentage also was recorded maximum in V3&nbsp;(69.77) and P3 (67.77) and interaction of both parameters was recorded non significance. Effect on yield (q/ha) was recorded maximum in V3 (1.05) and P3&nbsp;(0.99) and the interaction was recorded maximum in V3P3&nbsp;combination (1.27). The effect of vermicompost on oil percentage, protein percentage and oil yield (kg/ha) was recorded maximum 48.46, 21.33 and 1573.5 in V3 respectively. The effect of poultry manure recorded maximum in P3&nbsp;(48.03), 20.68 and 1411.2 kg/ha oil percentage, protein percentage and oil yield respectively. The interaction of vermicompost and poultry manure was recorded maximum with the combination of V3P3&nbsp;and found 49.52 oil percentage, 21.76 protein percentage and 1696.00 kg/ha oil yield. The results indicated that all these parameters were significantly increased due to vermicompost and poultry manure application. Their interaction was also significant. It was evident that a combination dose of V3P3 (6 ton ha-1&nbsp;vermicompost and 4 ton ha-1&nbsp;poultry manure) was found to be best giving the maximum values.</div>

Effect of the Vermicompost and Poultry Manure on Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) under Rain-fed Condition

<div>Background: Coccidiosis is a costly and wide-spread infectious disease in mammals that causes huge losses in the poultry industry worldwide. The present study was conducted to evaluate the potency of intact poultry gallbladder on the sporulation of Eimeria papillata oocysts of mice and to determine the best concentration for the activity of poultry bile on the inhibition of sporulation in oocysts.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: In this test, we used potassium dichromate solution (2.5%) as control group. Unpopulated oocysts were exposed (1 x&nbsp;103/3 ml) to four concentrations of poultry bile (w/v; 10%, 25%, 50%, and 100%). It was incubated in petri dishes for 48, 72 and 96 hours at 25-29&deg;C, with 60-80% humidity. The sporulation was examined under an inverted microscope at 40 x to confirm oocyst sporulation.&nbsp; 
 
Result: Showed through infrared spectroscopy of poultry bile that there are many expected active classes of chemical compounds. At a 100% concentration of poultry bile, it was able to inhibit the Eimeria papillata oocysts by about 98% in potassium dichromate solution. Also, it observed its ability to inhibit sporulation of oocysts in a dose-dependent manner at concentrations of 50%, 25%, and 10% of bile, the rate of inhibition was (71.7%, 33.11% and 19.88%), respectively. We found a direct relationship between inhibition and sporulation related to the increasing time period.&nbsp;</div>

The Anticoccidial Effects of the Poultry Bile against Eimeria papillata Oocysts of Mice: In vitro Study

<div>Background: Hydropericardium hepatitis syndrome (HHS) is an important emerging disease having economic importance and affecting particularly broiler chickens. Although the disease has been reported as a major problem in almost all the regions of India, not much is known from the North Eastern states of India. The present study was aimed to study prevalence, clinico-pathology and molecular diagnosis of HHS in poultry population of Mizoram. 
 
Methods: A poultry population of total 2430 from 15 different farms located in different districts of Mizoram were studied for outbreaks of HHS. Clinical manifestation of the disease in affected birds was recorded and pathological studies were carried out in total 190 dead birds. The outbreaks were further confirmed by detection of hexon gene of FAdV in tissue lesions by PCR. 
 
Result: Outbreak of HHS was recorded in 5 (33.3%) different broiler farms with sudden onset of mortality (18 to 25.2%) in broiler birds of 4 to 6 weeks of age. Pathological studies revealed characteristic lesions comprising hydro pericardium, hepatitis and basophilic intranuclear inclusion bodies in hepatocytes. Detection of hexon gene of FAdV in tissue lesions by PCR assay has further confirmed the outbreaks. This study reports for the first time, high prevalence of HHS in poultry population of Mizoram.&nbsp;</div>

<div>Prevalence and Molecular Diagnosis of Hydropericardium Hepatitis Syndrome in the Poultry Population of Mizoram, India</div>

<div>Background: Non-typhoidal Salmonellae (NTS) are the predominant source of foodborne Salmonellosis in humans. Livestock and poultry are important reservoirs of NTS. In the context of food safety, this study was undertaken to characterize Salmonella species isolated from livestock, poultry and fish for antimicrobial resistance.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: A total of 620 fecal and food samples were randomly collected from different places. Isolation and identification of Salmonella species were done employing microbial and molecular tests. Phenotypic AMR pattern was studied as per the CLSI guidelines and AMR genes were detected by PCR.&nbsp; 
 
Result: Salmonella spp. were detected in 39(6.29%) out of 620 samples. Salmonella isolates were 100% sensitive to aztreonam, cefepime, cefpodoxime, followed by cefoxitin (97.43%), ceftazidime (94.43%), piperacillin/tazobactam (94.87%) and ciprofloxacin (71.79%). However, resistance to ampicillin (53.84%), colistin (66.66%), tetracycline (58.57%), amoxyclav (33.33%) and sulfafurazole (23.07%) was observed. Out of 39 isolates, 7(17.94%) were ESBL positive strains and blaTEM was detected in the two ESBL positive isolates. Quinolone- resistant QnrS gene was present in 3(7.69%) isolates. KPC, AmpC and MBL positivity and genes encoding mobile colistin resistance (mcr) were not detected. The presence of virulent and drug-resistant strains of Salmonella in livestock and poultry may poses environmental, food safety and public health risks.</div>