Milk fat globules (MFGs) are a complex compound secreted in the mammary gland, composed of triglycerides; phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) phosphatidylcholine (PC) with unclear mechanism and the fused lipid droplets enclosed by inner layer derived from the endoplasmic reticulum and outer bilayer is directly derived from the apical plasma membrane as the lipid droplets bud out from the cell. The core components of MFGs, triglycerides are synthesized via the de novo fatty acid pathway and LCFA was directly taken from serum. The de novo fatty acid pathway was significantly dependent on the enzymes acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACACA), fatty acid synthase (FASN) and acyl-CoA synthetase short-chain family member 2 (ACSS2) to synthesize short and medium-chain fatty acids, whereas the bio-hydrogenation pathway is a principal pathway for the synthesis of long-chain fatty acids. Following this, the milk fat globules coated by the membrane are released from the MEC to the lumen with or without other milk components and the membrane that surrounds the fat globule stabilize the milk fat in its dispersed state, prevent flocculation and globule coalescence, and protects against the deleterious effects of lipases. Even though the secretion mechanism of lipid droplets is controversial hormonal and molecular mechanisms are involved. Moreover, the fat globule size and composition are determined by factors such as stage of lactation, physiological state of the animal, Diacylglycerol Acyltransferase1 (DGAT1) activity, and PC/PE ratio along with breed and animal species. While some studies were conducted on milk synthesis and secretion, the molecular mechanism behind lipid droplet fusion, secretion in the apical membrane and how MFGM is formed and the mechanism of MFG synthesis regulation are undiscovered. Therefore, it needs advanced investigation.&nbsp;

Physiology and Mechanism of Milk Fat Globules Secretion in Dairy Animals: A Review&nbsp;

Background: Drought is a critical abiotic stress that affects the productivity, growth and yield of crops. The current study was evaluated to screen six widely grown tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) genotypes viz, Shivam, Siri, Bhagyashree, Arka Samrat, Arka Rakshak, Arka Apeksha, in the south part of India to drought stress. 
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Methods: The studies were performed mostly on leaves in pot experiments using a complete randomized arrangement (CRD), polybags were divided into two sets for each genotype-one set of polybags consist of four bags were given drought treatment by withholding irrigation for 10 days which includes sampling days and another set of polybags consisting of four bags were routinely watered considered as a control for preceding sampling days. The set standard protocols were used for each experiment conducted. 
&nbsp; 
Result: This studies on morpho-physiology showed a significant reduction along with oxidative damage in all genotypes including increase in malonaldehyde content (MDA content) and hydrogen Peroxide and superoxide radical localization that led to increase in antioxidative activity such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and ascorbate peroxidase (APX), as well as their isozymes. Photosynthetic parameters such as the net photosynthesis rate, stomatal conductance and Fv/Fm and other related measurements drastically decreased in drought-stressed plants. Moreover, stomatal structure showed flaccid guard cells and the closure of the stomata in all genotypes of tomatoes, but with fewer variations in &lsquo;Arka Samrat&rsquo; and &lsquo;Shivam&rsquo;. 
&nbsp;

Exploring Adaptative and Susceptible Mechanism in Selected Tomato Genotypes Employing Physiological Modulations and Antioxidative Pathways under Drought Stress

<div>Background:&nbsp;Onion is a widely accepted as vegetable as well as spice crop, sharing a 14.31 lakh ha area with 267.3 lakh MT production in 2020. Improved management structure and healthy seedling are important factors in overcoming the cause and even developing effective transplanter. The information of morphological properties is essential before designing modern farming equipment. 
 
Methods: Present study focuses on the properties and age of seedlings for automated transplanting, five majorly cultivated varieties of onion Light red gavran, N-53 Nasik red, AFDR, KSP-117 and Nafed were selected. The morphological (height, weight, diameter) and mechanical (compressive strength and static coefficient of friction) properties were measured under 10 days intervals to compare 30-70 days seedling. 
 
Result: Bulb and stem diameter were in the range from 2.82 to 3.82 mm and 0.86 to 2.12 mm, respectively. The model was found significantly different with concerning days. Plywood and aluminium had less influence on the seedling&rsquo;s outer surface moisture content. The morphological parameters and compressive strength increased while a static coefficient of friction reduced with an increase in the age of the seedling. Regression and ANN (using FFBP method) models were developed for the prediction of compressive strength of seedling stem as well as a bulb with respect to the age and diameter. The ANN model was found best with the coefficient of determination of 0.76. It is concluded that 60 and 70 days, seedling is best suited for mechanical or automated transplanting.</div>

Morphological and Mechanical Characteristics of Onion Seedlings Insight to Mechanized Transplantation

<div>Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is one of the most important cereal crop globally and it is the staple food of more than half of world population. Current average yield is 10 to 15% lower than its potential yield. There are many reasons for this yield gap such as biotic and abiotic stresses, management strategies as well as nutrient deficiencies. Salinity is one of the most serious factors limiting the productivity of rice, with adverse effects on germination, plant vigor and crop yield. This salinity may be natural or induced by agricultural activities such as irrigation or the use of certain types of fertilizer.Salinity induced ionic imbalance and osmotic stress affect water and nutrient uptake, stomatal closure, gas exchange, photosynthesis, transpiration, carbon assimilation and hence decrease in rice yield. Studying the response of rice at physiological, genetic and molecular level is the mandate to develop salt tolerant rice varieties. This review described the impact of salt stress in rice, various types of salt tolerance mechanisms in rice, including the ion homeostasis, production of compatible organic solutes, antioxidative genes, salt responsive regulatory elements, role of ion transporters and channel proteins. Further, the future perspective of developing salt-tolerant varieties using landraces via., marker assisted breeding, genome editing tool, utilization of beneficial microorganisms.</div>

Salinity Tolerance Mechanisms in Rice: A Review

The concept of water movement across cell membranes eventually lead to identification of water channels, known as &lsquo;Aquaporins&rsquo;. The transport function exerted by aquaporins (AQPs) is carried out efficiently by 13 distinct isoforms of AQPs in mammals. AQPs help in regulation of physiological functions of various organ systems and have a functional role in stress associated with various pathological conditions. This review summarises the involvement of AQPs in transport of ROS and oxidative stress regulation in various organ systems. AQP1, AQP4, AQP7 and AQP9 are the major AQPs in the cardiac tissues of various animals, playing vital role in the patho-physiology of congestive heart failure, myocardial oedema, myocardial ischemia and polymicrobial sepsis. In digestive system, AQP1, AQP3, AQP4, AQP7, AQP8, AQP10 and AQP11 are localised in gastro-intestinal tract, modulating patho-physiology of pseudomembranous colitis, bile induced diarrhoea, irritable bowel syndrome and intestinal ulcers. AQPs in enteric tissues are engaged in metabolism of H2O2, providing a protective mechanism against oxidative stress. AQP1, AQP2, AQP3, AQP4 and AQP11 are major renal AQPs involved in ureteral obstruction, nephrogenic diabetes insipidus and kidney injury. In respiratory system, AQP1, AQP2, AQP4 and AQP5 are expressed in various pathological circumstances like lung injury and pulmonary inflammation due to oxidative stress. Thus, the evidences regarding the role of AQPs in oxidative stress offer a foundation for comprehending the adaptive mechanisms to oxidative injury at cellular level, which helps in strategizing breeding programmes and serves as biomarkers for efficient diagnosis.

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The Role of Aquaporin in Stress Physiology: A Review

<div style="text-align: justify;">Salinity in soil and water is a critical factor that is causing hindrance in crop production under salt affected areas. Plant metabolic activities are apparently restricted due to accumulation of salt. The event of salt stress happens to be the reason of severe alteration in the sequence of plant growth and development which ultimately reduces the survivability of plants. The physiological and biochemical mechanisms of tolerance to various osmotic and ionic components of salinity stress are evaluated at the cellular, organ and whole plant level. The course of adaptation towards salinity stress could be of various types such as avoidance, exclusion, extrusion, ion compartmentalization etc. Appropriate understanding of mechanism involved in salt tolerance at different levels in plant tissues provide a new opportunity to integrate physiological and biochemical knowledge to improve the salinity tolerance of fruit crops, especially from the nutritional aspect. Such information not only helpful in escalating the productivity in salt affected areas, but also facilitate in bringing relatively more salt affected areas under cultivation.</div>

<div style="text-align: justify;">Mechanism of Salt Tolerance in Fruit Crops: A Review</div>

<div>Background: In recent years, several works have examined the reproductive traits of Algerian local population rabbit does but no standardization study has been done on the plasmatic parameters of this population of rabbits reared in the Aures region during their different physiological stages. Therefore, the present study evaluated the effect of these on certain blood parameters in local rabbit does. 
 
Methods: The rabbit does (n=120) were randomly divided into 4 treatment groups; Empty (E), Pregnant (P), Pregnant lactating (P-L) and Lactating (L). Does were first mated at the age of 16.5 weeks with an average body weight of 3107.1 &plusmn; 53.5g and with body condition scoring (BCS) of loin and rump ranging from 2 to 3 on a scale of 1- 5 following a 42-day rhythm. Four blood samples were collected from females of five rabbits in each group viz. E, P, P-L and L respectively. 
 
Result: Milk yield differs significantly (p&lt;0.05) between the two experimental groups (P-L and L). Litter size and litter weight of does at birthing was higher (p&lt;0.01) in L group than in P and P-L groups. That the mean levels glucose in non-pregnant group recorded as 0.22&plusmn;0.04g/l which was increased 3rd week of pregnancy (0.65&plusmn; 0.1 g/l followed by low mean value 0.35+0.2g/l and 0.4+0.1g/l at pregnant lactating and lactating stages of experimental rabbits. The lowest level of protein was recorded in the second week of pregnancy (p&lt;0.05). The increase in total protein, albumin and globulin concentrations in lactating group might be physiological. Concerning total lipids, there was a strong mobilization of body fat in pregnant females (97 mg/dl &plusmn; 0.10; p&lt;0.05). However, a marked decrease (p&lt;0.05) was recorded in cholesterolemia in lactating females. Regarding triglyceridemia, we have recorded a significant raise (37.7 &plusmn; 35.6; p&lt;0.001) in pregnant females. The creatinine value recorded was close to the physiological norms 1.3-2.7 mg/dl vs 1.08 -0. 92 mg/dl. T3 plasma levels were lower (p&lt;0.05) in lactating females&rsquo; group. Pregnant and lactating does showed an increase (p&lt;0.05) of leptin level. The higher (p&lt;0.05) progesterone levels in pregnant and pregnant-lactating does than its concentrations in empty and lactating does might be attributed to maintaining pregnancy. Therefore, the current study confirms that the analysis of metabolites represents a good tool to understand the physiological mechanisms. &nbsp;</div>

<div>The Blood Biochemical Profiles in Algerian Rabbits of the Semi-arid Region of Aures (Algeria) At Different Physiological Stages</div>

Background: Soil sodicity is becoming a serious problem which is increasing every year has a negative impact the physical and nutritional qualities of the soil and plant which has an immense adverse effect on crop growth. Sodicity tolerance includes the manifestation of biochemical and physiological variations. Understanding these physiological and biochemical mechanism in rice is one of the biological solution for increasing the yield of crops through increased tolerance mechanism. 
 
Methods: A field experiment was conducted at Anbil Dharmalingam Agricultural College and Research Institute, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu to evaluate the performance of different rice varieties i.e., TRY 1, CO 43, TRY 2, CSR 27, TRY 3, white ponni (WP) with particular reference to Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP) at various levels viz., ESP 8, 16, 24, 32, 40 and 48 and its impact on physiological and biochemical components. Plant samples were collected at flowering stage was analyzed for chlorophyll, sugars and proline content. Grain and straw yield of the crop was recorded. 
 
Result: The Chlorophyll and non-reducing sugars showed decreasing trend with increasing ESP levels but proline, reducing sugar and total sugar showed an increasing trend with increasing sodicity levels. The variation in biochemical and physiological components had significantly affected the growth and yield of rice crop. Among different rice varieties TRY 3 was found to be superior at increasing sodicity levels..

Evaluation of Physiological and Biochemical Traits in Relation to Sodicity Tolerance in Selected Rice Genotypes under Different Sodicity Levels

This review article provides a comprehensive overview of Holstein Friesian dairy cattle&rsquo;s physiological adaptation in Balochistan, a harsh environment that poses significant challenges to animal production. The article reviews various physiological responses and adaptations of Holstein Friesian dairy cattle to thermal stress and water scarcity, which are two of the most significant challenges the animals face in this region. It also highlights several key physiological responses that occur in Holstein Friesian dairy cattle when exposed to thermal stress, such as increased respiratory rate, pulse rateand rectal temperature. Additionally, milk production, somatic cell count (SCC), blood metabolitesand heart rate were identified as valuable indicators for assessing the animal&rsquo;s thermoregulatory mechanisms and detecting the impact of thermal stress. Moreover, adaptations of the sweat gland characteristics, metabolism processes and reduced metabolic requirements were also discussed. This review also highlighted the effect of altitude, hair coatand breed differences on the animals&rsquo; physiological adaptation. The authors stressed the significance of understanding the animals&rsquo; physiological responses to harsh environmental conditions and the importance of measuring these responses accurately in enhancing the animal&rsquo;s productivity and welfare. This review concludes with recommendations for improving the adaptability and performance of Holstein Friesian dairy cattle in Balochistan. Suggestions include implementing crossbreeding programs with indigenous breeds, improving management practices, utilizing physiological parameters to monitor animal health and conducting further research to identify genetic variations that improve animal adaptability. The authors emphasize the significance of these recommendations to increase farmers&rsquo; income, enhance food securityand contribute to the socio-economic development of the region. In conclusion, this review article provides valuable insights into Holstein Friesian dairy cattle&rsquo;s physiological adaptation in Balochistan and can be useful for stakeholders in the dairy industry, policymakersand researchers concerned with improving the sustainability and profitability of animal agriculture in harsh environments.

Holstein Friesian Dairy Cattle Physiological Adaptation in Balochistan: A Review

<div>Background: Alfalfa crops are subject to intercalation when grown continuously on the same field, and autotoxicity appears to be another factor in this thinning. Alfalfa fields are often thinned out and have lower yields during consecutive production, and autotoxicity is increasingly found to be a major reason. Hence, Therefore, understanding the seed germination and seedling growth and physiological mechanisms of the alfalfa under continuous cropping system becomes important for sustainable the use of alfalfa grassland.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: The leaves, stem, root and rhizosphere soil of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L. cv ZhongMu No.1) were collected to determine the seedling growth germination index (GI) and vigor index(VI), physiological characters malondialdehyde (MDA), proline, Soluble sugar (SS), Soluble protein (SP), Superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and peroxidase (POD). 
 
Result: The germination rate, germination potential, germination index (GI) and vigor index decreased with the increasing extract contents, particularly in leaf extracts. In the extract of plant and soil, the concentration of malondialdehyde altered indistinctly, while the contents of osmo-regulatory substances and the activities of anti-oxidative enzymes generally decreased. Furthermore, the extract increased the seedling length of alfalfa and GI was negatively correlated with seedling growth characteristics.</div>