<div>Background: Healthy transition from non-lactating pregnant state to non-pregnant lactating state is an important in the profitability of dairying. Though feeding and managemental practices play an important role in the adaptation to transition, animals kept on similar feeding and management exhibit differences in adaptation indicating an underlying genetic cause. In the present study, the sequence of gene SNAI2, which is considered to have an effect on metabolic adaptability has been compared among animals with apparently varying adaptability, as indicated by their &beta;-hydroxy butyric acid (BHBA) concentration. 
 
Methods: During the period from August 2018 to May 2019, blood was collected and serum was separated from 30 pregnant cross bred (belonging to Sunandini genetic group of cross bred cattle of Kerala) dairy cows at fortnightly intervals from four weeks before the predicted day of parturition until four weeks after parturition. Concentration of BHBA was determined. Based on BHBA concentration the animals were sorted into two groups (High BHBA and low BHBA) using cluster analysis. Blood was collected, DNA extracted and&nbsp;SNAI2 gene amplified using custom synthesised primers. Amplicons from representative animals of each group were sequenced. The sequences obtained were aligned and compared using clustal-&omega;. 
 
Result: The comparison of the sequence of SNAI2 gene amongst the animals having high BHBA and those with low BHBA revealed two variations between the groups, one at promoter region, 61 bp upstream to the gene and other was at exonic region at 1560 bp. In silico structural analysis revealed difference in protein structure. The changes observed in the gene SNAI2 between the sets of animals grouped based on BHBA has to be studied on a larger population to ascertain the suitability of them being used as markers of genetic selection for metabolic adaptability, which in turn can increase the profitability of dairying.</div>

Molecular Markers for Metabolic Adaptation in Dairy Cows: SNAI2 Gene Variations

This review article provides a comprehensive overview of Holstein Friesian dairy cattle&rsquo;s physiological adaptation in Balochistan, a harsh environment that poses significant challenges to animal production. The article reviews various physiological responses and adaptations of Holstein Friesian dairy cattle to thermal stress and water scarcity, which are two of the most significant challenges the animals face in this region. It also highlights several key physiological responses that occur in Holstein Friesian dairy cattle when exposed to thermal stress, such as increased respiratory rate, pulse rateand rectal temperature. Additionally, milk production, somatic cell count (SCC), blood metabolitesand heart rate were identified as valuable indicators for assessing the animal&rsquo;s thermoregulatory mechanisms and detecting the impact of thermal stress. Moreover, adaptations of the sweat gland characteristics, metabolism processes and reduced metabolic requirements were also discussed. This review also highlighted the effect of altitude, hair coatand breed differences on the animals&rsquo; physiological adaptation. The authors stressed the significance of understanding the animals&rsquo; physiological responses to harsh environmental conditions and the importance of measuring these responses accurately in enhancing the animal&rsquo;s productivity and welfare. This review concludes with recommendations for improving the adaptability and performance of Holstein Friesian dairy cattle in Balochistan. Suggestions include implementing crossbreeding programs with indigenous breeds, improving management practices, utilizing physiological parameters to monitor animal health and conducting further research to identify genetic variations that improve animal adaptability. The authors emphasize the significance of these recommendations to increase farmers&rsquo; income, enhance food securityand contribute to the socio-economic development of the region. In conclusion, this review article provides valuable insights into Holstein Friesian dairy cattle&rsquo;s physiological adaptation in Balochistan and can be useful for stakeholders in the dairy industry, policymakersand researchers concerned with improving the sustainability and profitability of animal agriculture in harsh environments.

Holstein Friesian Dairy Cattle Physiological Adaptation in Balochistan: A Review

High altitude environments pose unique challenges for both humans and animals, necessitating a range of adaptations for survival. Livestock species indigenous to mountainous regions, such as Yaks, Tibetan sheep, Ladakhi cattle and Himalayan goats, have evolved specialized physiological, morphological and biochemical mechanisms to cope with extreme conditions like hypobaric hypoxia, temperature fluctuations and limited forage availability. These adaptations are crucial for their survival and the livelihoods of mountain communities that depend on them for resources like milk, meat and wool. Omic studies have revolutionized our understanding of high altitude adaptation in livestock. Genomic analyses have revealed genetic signatures of adaptation, such as higher heterozygosity rates in Yaks and positive selection of genes related to energy metabolism and hypoxia response. Transcriptomics studies have uncovered gene expression patterns and pathways underlying high-altitude responses, including those related to oxygen transport, immune function and stress tolerance in sheep and goats, comparative RNA molecule analyses have identified key regulators of hypoxia adaptation and cellular metabolism. Skin transcriptomics studies have highlighted genes involved in coat color, UV protection and fiber quality adaptations. Overall, leveraging omics methods such as genomics, transcriptomics and comparative analyses provides valuable insights into the genetic, molecular and physiological basis of high altitude adaptation in livestock. These findings contribute to the development of targeted breeding strategies and sustainable management practices essential for livestock resilience and food security in mountainous regions amidst climate change challenges. 
&nbsp;

High Altitude Adaptation in Livestock and Poultry: Exploring Morphological, Physiological, Biochemical and Omic Insights: A Review

Background: Low-temperature stress is a major abiotic factor that significantly impacts plant growth and productivity, especially in cold climatic conditions. Trifolium ambiguum M. Bieb. (Caucasian clover), a perennial legume known for its cold tolerance and it is an ideal model for studying cold adaptation mechanisms. However, the metabolic pathways that underpin its cold tolerance are not well understood. This study used widely targeted metabolomics to examine the metabolic reprogramming of T. ambiguum under low-temperature stress. 
 
Methods: Trifolium ambiguum seedlings were grown under controlled conditions and 14-day-old plants were exposed to two treatments: low-temperature stress (4&deg;C) and control conditions (25&deg;C). Samples were collected two hours after treatment. Widely targeted metabolomics profiling was performed to analyze metabolic changes induced by low-temperature stress. Key pathways and metabolites involved in the low-temperature stress response were identified through kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment and metabolic network analysis. 
 
Result: Low-temperature stress induced significant metabolic reprogramming in Trifolium ambiguum, with notable alterations observed in fatty acid metabolism. This enhancement improved cell membrane fluidity and stability, thereby strengthening the plant&rsquo;s towards cold tolerance. Furthermore, the significant accumulation of proline and glutamate underscores their critical roles in osmotic regulation and antioxidative defense mechanisms. Additionally, the upregulation of secondary metabolites like (+)-Forbesione and flavonoids plays a key role in scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS) and regulating stress-related signaling. KEGG pathway enrichment analysis revealed that C5-Branched dibasic acid metabolism and alpha-Linolenic acid metabolism play central roles in cold adaptation. C5-Branched dibasic acid metabolism provided essential carbon skeletons and energy substrates, while alpha-linolenic acid metabolism contributed to maintaining membrane stability and supporting antioxidative responses. The enrichment of the TCA cycle and glycerophospholipid metabolism further ensured energy supply and membrane integrity under stress conditions.

Metabolic Response of Trifolium ambiguum to Low-temperature Stress based on Widely Targeted Metabolomics

<div>Drought stress reduces photosynthetic rate and leading to depletion of the energy source and lowers the yield. Under drought stress, reduced turgor pressure cause inhibition of cell elongation and impaired mitosis leads to reduction in growth rate. Role of sucrose metabolism under drought adaptation and response of plants to stress in different tissues and at different developmental stages. Cytoplasmic sucrose synthesis is more under drought condition and there is differential expression in tolerant and susceptible cultivars. Under drought condition, plant start consuming its own sink for its survival thus reducing sucrose concentration. But reduction in sucrose concentration is less in drought tolerant plants. Drought stress induced an increase of the root/shoot ratio, which was due to the increased inhibition of biomass accumulation of shoots compared to roots. Drought stress enhanced the activities of sucrose metabolic enzymes and up-regulated the expression of genes such as SPS, SuSy and INV. In addition, drought stress up-regulated the expression levels of SWEET and SUC and promoted the transport of sucrose from source to sink.&nbsp;</div>

Sucrose Metabolism in Plants under Drought Stress Condition: A Review

<div>Water deficit stress is one of the chief abiotic stresses adversely affecting plant endurance leading serious effects on plant metabolism. Depending upon strength and duration of water deficit conditions, plants adjust a series of physiological, cellular and molecular mechanisms aiming a correct stress response. Some of the responses of plants to water stress include decreased growth and development and hence decrease in fresh biomass, decreased content of chlorophyll and hence the decreased rate of photosynthesis, decrease in leaf relative water content (RWC) and increased accumulation of osmolytes like proline, sucrose, soluble carbohydrates, etc. Several enzymes involved in carbohydrate metabolism seem to play a role in the multi-layered response of plants to water deficiency. Glycolysis is a central metabolic pathway that provide elasticity when production of energy for existence is confronted and is modulated to establish a novel homeostasis under stress conditions in plants. Evidence for the participation of glycolytic genes, proteins and enzymes in response to stress is established by the fact that their expression is deeply affected by exposure of plant tissues to environmental stresses such as drought. Keeping in mind the importance of glycolytic pathway during stress conditions in plants, the impact of the drought stress on plant glycolysis is the subject of current review. In addition, plant physiology and carbohydrate metabolism under drought stress are also discussed.</div>

Plant Metabolism during Water Deficit Stress: A Review

<div>Background: Zobawng is a local non-descript cattle of Mizoram, a hilly state of North-east India.Current study was carried out to investigate the haemato-biochemical profile of Zobawng cattle with the purpose of analyzing the physiological variations under the influence of different lactation stages in terms of determining possible biomarkers to monitor the energy balance and the metabolic adequacy during lactation. 
 
Methods: Eighteen clinically healthy lactating Zobawng cattle were categorized into three groups based on the length of their lactation: group-I (early stage), group-II (mid stage) and group-III (late stage). Haematological analysis was carried by automated blood&nbsp; analyzer&nbsp; (Melet Schlosing4e, France); whereas, metabolic parameters were evaluated by using automated clinical chemistry analyzer (Fuji Dry Chem 4000i, Fujifilm, Tokyo, Japan). 
 
Result: Haematological parameters varied non-significantly amongst the three groups of animals. The value of packed cell volume (PCV), RBC count and haemoglobin (Hb) concentration were found to be lowest during early stage of lactation. Other&nbsp; parameters viz. total leucocyte count (TLC), differential leucocyte count (DLC), mean corpuscular volume (MCV), mean corpuscular haemoglobin (MCH) and platelet count were within the normal limits. Similarly, metabolic parameters also differed apparently, but the differences were statistically non significant amongst the groups. The glucose level was recorded to be the lowest in the early stage of lactation; whereas, protein and creatinine concentrations were slightly higher in this stage. No significant alteration in the concentration of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) was noticed amongst the three groups of cattle. Data generated during the study may be useful as reference values for the scientific community as this is the first study of its kind in Zobawng cattle.</div>

Effect of Lactation on Haematological and Metabolic Profile in Zobawng Cattle

<div>Background: The industrial hub of Punjab, Ludhiana is polluted with heavy metals. The dairy animals experience stress due to pollution of heavy metals as well as the hot summer season. The stressors lead to disturbance in metabolic profile and affect milk production. The present study aimed at evaluation of detrimental effect of environmental heavy metal pollution on the metabolic profile of buffaloes during summer and winter seasons in Ludhiana district of Punjab, India. A total of 100 buffaloes were randomly selected from heavy metal exposed (n=60) and control area (n=40) during summer and winter seasons.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: The location of the experimental area surveyed on the basis of levels of heavy metals. The dairy farms are located in and around Ludhiana, Punjab were identified with levels of heavy metal above the permissible limits (FSSAI, 2010) viz. Chromium-0.05 &micro;g /ml; Nickel-0.02 &micro;g /ml; Arsenic-0.05 &micro;g /ml and Lead -0.05&micro;g /ml. The plasma samples were analyzed for metabolic profile. The water levels of heavy metals were below the permissible limits; therefore, it was taken as uncontaminated or control area. 
 
Result: Buffaloes of heavy metal exposed areas exhibited significantly (P&lt;0.05) higher levels of glucose, total cholesterol, triglycerides, BUN, creatinine, AST, ALT, GGT, ALP and CK levels as compared to control area. A significant (P&lt;0.05) decrease was observed in plasma total protein, albumin, A:G ratio, BUN: creatinine ratio in the buffaloes of exposed area as compared to the control area. However, significantly (P&lt;0.05) higher levels of plasma glucose, BUN, creatinine, AST, ALT, GGT, ALP and CK levels were observed during summer as compared to winter season in both exposed and control areas. Significantly (P&lt;0.05) decreased levels of plasma total cholesterol, triglycerides, total protein, albumin and BUN: Creatinine ratio were observed in the buffaloes during summer as compared to winter in both exposed and control areas. The Cr, Ni, As and Pb levels showed highly significant (P&lt;0.01) positive correlation with plasma levels of glucose, total cholesterol, creatinine, ALT, AST, CK and GGT. Highly significant positive relationship (P&lt;0.01) was observed among plasma levels of glucose, total cholesterol, creatinine, BUN, ALT, AST, ALP, CK and GGT whereas, plasma BUN had highly significant (P&lt;0.01) negative correlation with plasma total protein and A:G ratio considering both the areas together. Plasma levels of total protein showed significant (P&lt;0.01) negative correlation with all other metabolic profile constituents of both control and heavy metal exposed areas. Thus it may be concluded that the metabolic disturbance in heavy metal exposed buffaloes may have been mediated by heavy metal pollution.&nbsp;</div>

​​Effect of Environmental Heavy Metal Pollution on Metabolic Profile of Buffaloes in Ludhiana

<div>Duck virus enteritis (DVE) is an acute, contagious herpes viral disease of ducks, geese and swans and members of the family Anatidae under the order Anseriformes. As per the recent taxonomic classification by ICTV, DEV has been classified into the genus Mardivirus, subfamily Alpha-herpesvirinae of the family Herpesviridae. Vaccination is the only option for the prevention and control of Duck plague. In India vaccination is done with chicken embryo adapted live virus which has many shortcomings. So, in this present situation a safe and potent vaccine development is the need of the hour. The use of chicken embryo fibroblast and a certified cell line may, probably, be the best option to achieve this. Therefore, the present study was undertaken for adaptation and propagation of local strain of duck plague virus in various cell culture systems. &nbsp;During the study a wild strain of DPV (DP/As-Km/0019) which was isolated in Duck Embryo Fibroblast, available in the Department of Microbiology was selected. The selected wild strain was used for adaptation in various cell culture systems viz. Chicken embryo fibroblast cell culture (CEF), Vero cell line and QT-35 cell line. The virus was passaged up to 12th passage levels and the presence of viral antigen was demonstrated by appearance of cytopathic effect (CPE), by Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and by Sandwich ELISA. PCR was able to detect virus from all the cell cultures from 5th passage onwards and virus titre was detected at 10th and 12th passage level by S-ELISA. It was observed that various cell culture systems can be a good candidate for propagation of DPV and further study is required to study its immunogenicity and its feasibility as a vaccine candidate.</div>

<div>Adaptation of wild strain of duck plague virus in cell culture systems</div>

Background: In contemporary world food crop production is under pressure due to change in climate. In developing nation climate change is a treat both in food crop production and food security. Analysing farmers&rsquo; climate change adaptation measures and understanding the barriers provides clear guidance to address constraints that impede food crop producers&rsquo; adaptation. 
&nbsp; 
Methods: A stratified random sampling technique was used to sample 200 food crop producers for primary data gathering. The multinomial logit model was used to determine the factors that affect the selection of adaptation measures to climate change and factor analysis was used to identify factors that impede food crop producers&rsquo; ability to adapt to climate change. 
&nbsp; 
Result: The result of the multinomial logit model shows that various socio-economic factors&nbsp;(family size, education, climate change awareness, farming experience, nonfarm income, farm size, distance to farmland, extension services and access to credit) influence farmers&rsquo; choices regarding climate change adaptation strategies in the study area. The result of the varimax rotate principal component analysis found four factors that are detrimental to food crop producers in adapting to climate change. These principal constraints are institution and government, technology and inputs, information and knowledge and belief, culture and participation as factors that hinder farmers from adapting to climate change.&nbsp;Thus, there is room for government and development partners to strengthen the adaptive capacities of farmers by resolving problems related to institutions, government policy, technology, inputs availability and information regarding climate change to minimize the potential impact and loss in the future.&nbsp; 
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