<div>Agriculture is the most important economic activity around the world with its contributions reflected by its share in the gross domestic product of countries. It ensures food security, provides raw materials for many industries and employment opportunities. Today, pest and diseases are among the main challenges plaguing the agricultural sector. More specifically, phytophagous mites are devastating many economically important crops worldwide. Tetranychus urticae Koch (Two-spotted spider mites), Raoiella indica Hirst, (red palm mites), Polyphagotarsonemus latus Banks (broad mites) and Panonychus ulmi Koch (European red mites) are widely known for their extensive damage to crops. To control these mites, farmers have incorporated the use of pesticides into their farming systems. However, chemical control comes with many problems such as insect resistance, detrimental environmental effects and various human health implications. As such biological control is an environmentally friendly alternative that uses bio-control agents such as predators, pathogens and parasitoids to control pests. In this review, it was found that predators and pathogens were the most widely used biocontrol agents, specifically, the Amblyseius spp. Berlese were most effective and widely documented. The available literature also suggests that for successful control of agricultural mites via biological control, there needs to be a clear understanding of the behaviors of these mites and the bio-control agents used. 
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Biological Control Methods for Agricultural Mites: A Review

Background: Pepper growing fields in the Babil and Wasit governorates in Iraq, are suffering from a decline in production due to the spread of root rot diseases. The use of biological control techniques, such as the use of beneficial bacteria in the rhizosphere and natural plant extracts, along with chemical fungicides, has recently contributed to reducing the damage of plant pathogens globally. 
 
Methods: In this research, the main cause of root rot disease in pepper plants was isolated and diagnosed using polymerase chain reaction technology using (TEF-1&alpha;) gene, antagonistic activities of 75 rhizobacterial isolates, natural extracts of garlic and nerium and the fungicides of Promess and Tecto 500 SC were tested in vitro against the pathogen, then the superior bacterial isolates were identified. The ability of biological and chemical agents to control the disease was tested under greenhouse conditions according to the completely randomized design (CRD). 
 
Result: The results of isolation showed that the fungus Fusarium solani was dominance and the isolate Fsw45 was the most virulent. 3 of 75 rhizobacterial isolates outperformed the pathogen in an antagonistic tests and identified as Pseudomonas mendocina, P. fluorescens and Staphylococcus kloosii also the fungicides and botanical extracts showed significant antagonistic activities as well in vitro. Under greenhouse conditions, the fungicide treatments excelled in disease control by 100%. As for the 3 bacterial isolates, they achieved a significant reduction in the percentage of disease incidence and disease severity index, their abilities were higher than the nerium and garlic extracts.

Some Chemical and Biological Methods to Control Pepper Root Rot Disease in Iraq

<div>Background: Paddy straw mushroom (Volvariella volvacea) commonly known as the straw mushroom, in India, commonly referred to as &ldquo;Pual mushrooms&rdquo;, &ldquo;Pala chhatu&rdquo; in odia belongs to Phylum-Basidiomycota, Class-Basidiomycetes, Order-Agaricales, Family-Pluteaceae and Genus Volvariella. It is being the third most important cultivated mushroom in the world is well known for its pleasant flavour and taste.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: An experiment was conducted to evaluate paddy straw and other locally available substrates for production of paddy straw mushroom (Volvariella volvacea) in Odisha under semi-compost method. Substrates viz. Paddy straw (crumpled and uncrumpled), Paddy straw+ Banana leaves (3:1, w/w), Paddy straw+ Cotton waste (3:1, w/w), Paddy straw+ Water hyacinth (3:1, w/w), Paddy straw + Banana leaves +Water hyacinth (2:1:1, w/w) were partially decomposed and evaluated against traditional undecomposed method of cultivation. 
 
Result: Paddy straw (uncrumpled / hand threshed / bundled), when semi-composted, sustained significantly higher mushroom yield (15.63% BE) as compared to the yield (11.50% BE) obtained from its un-decomposed state in traditional method of cultivation. When other wastes such as cotton waste, banana leaves and water hyacinth were mixed with un-crumpled straw, the biological efficiency increased further (16.06 -19.29% BE). Paddy straw mixed with cotton waste (3:1, w/w) sustained the highest yield potential (19.29% BE). It was also recorded that semi composted crumpled/ cattle threshed paddy straw (12.0% BE) was statistically at par with the non-composted uncrupmled/ hand threshed paddy straw (11.50% BE) in supporting the mushroom yield.</div>

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Enhancing the Biological Efficiency of Paddy Straw Mushroom (Volvariella volvacea) using Semi-composting Method of Cultivation in Odisha

Background: Around 90% of global groundnut production takes place in semi-arid tropic (SAT) regions, highlighting its importance as a key oilseed and food crop that delivers essential nutrients for human consumption. However, climate change poses significant threats to both the yield and quality of groundnut products in these areas. 
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Methods: During the rabi seasons of 2022-23 and 2023-24, potential Trichoderma and Bacillus isolates were collected from rhizospheric soils in Telangana at the Groundnut Pathology Laboratory, ICRISAT, Patancheru. These isolates were assessed for their antagonistic effectand effectiveness of fungicides against Sclerotium rolfsii at different carbon dioxide levels (400 ppm, 550 ppm and 700 ppm) in CO2&nbsp;incubators. 
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Result: Results showed that Trichoderma harzianum (T3) achieved 73.88% and 65.55% inhibition of the pathogen&rsquo;s radial growth at 700 ppm and 550 ppm CO2&nbsp;levels, respectively. Meanwhile, Trichoderma viride (T1) exhibited 62.10% inhibition at 400 ppm CO2. Bacillus tequilensis (B2) exhibited the strongest activity, reducing radial growth by 68.32% at 700 ppm. At 550 ppm, Bacillus velezensis (B4) achieved the highest radial growth inhibition, with a 65.55% reduction. At 400 ppm, Bacillus cereus (B5) demonstrated the greatest inhibition, reducing radial growth by 56.10%. Notably, 100% inhibition of Sclerotium rolfsii was recorded with both tebuconazole and thiram across all three CO2&nbsp;levels. Azoxystrobin showed 93.05%, 86.38% and 80.55% inhibition at 700 ppm, 550 ppm and 400 ppm CO2&nbsp;levels, respectively. Overall, the biocontrol activity of the fungal and bacterial bioagents increased with rising carbon dioxide levels, as did the effectiveness of the fungicides.

Evaluation of Current Biological and Chemical Control Methods under Climate Change to Better Manage Stem Rot Disease in Groundnut

Background: The global rise of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) poses a serious threat to public health, emphasizing the urgent need for accurate, rapid and efficient detection methods. Conventional approaches for detecting AMR genes typically involve bacterial isolation followed by DNA extraction-procedures that are time-consuming, involve multiple steps and are not well-suited for routine screening. This study aimed to optimize a direct PCR method for the detection of AMR genes and to apply the standardized protocol for screening these genes in various sample types. 
 
Methods: A total of 150 samples (50 samples from each category) were collected from Chennai district, Tamil Nadu, India. The bacteria was isolated following standard protocols, DNA was extracted and PCR amplication was done to detect the presence of AMR genes. In the Direct PCR Master, PCR amplification was done directly from samples without the need for prior DNA extraction.&nbsp; 
 
Result: Escherichia coli was most prevalent in cloacal samples, followed by chicken meat and water, whereas Staphylococcus aureus was predominantly found in chicken meat, followed by water and cloacal samples. Regardless of the source, the genes tetA, sul1 and blaOXA-1 were consistently detected in E. coli, while tetA, sul1 and qnrA were most prevalent in S. aureus isolates. When comparing conventional culture dependent method with the direct PCR method, the latter showed a high concordance rate (&gt;76%) with the culture-dependent method, demonstrating strong sensitivity and specificity for most target genes. Additionally, the direct PCR approach offers several advantages, including reduced risk of contamination, a simplified workflow and shorter turnaround times. These benefits make it a promising alternative for rapid detection of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) genes, especially in resource-limited settings or during outbreak situations.

Rapid Detection of Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) Genes by Direct PCR Method: A Comparative Study with Culture-dependent Method

<div>Background: Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is the third most important pulse crop grown all over the world. Chickpea is infested by an average of about 60 insect-pests, of which gram pod borer, Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) is known to be the key pest. The migratory nature, polyphagous, short life cycle, multivoltine and resistance to insecticides makes H. armigera&nbsp;very difficult to control. In order to develop the resistance chickpea genotypes against H. armigera it is very important to understand the interrelation between the chickpea biochemical constituents and their effect on insect growth and development. 
 
Methods: The biological performance of H. armigera on different chickpea genotypes was studied using detached leaf method and the test genotypes were also evaluated for field level resistance to H. armigera under natural conditions. Different biochemical constituents viz., reducing sugar, protein, total phenol and tannins content in chickpea genotypes were estimated at 30 days after sowing. The relationship between biological attributes of H. armigera reared on different chickpea genotypes and biochemical constituents of chickpea genotypes was computed using simple correlation co-efficient. 
 
Result: Among the test genotypes, the lowest larval weight, prolonged larval duration and pupal duration were observed in GL-13042. The lowest pupal weight and percent of adult emergence was observed in NBeG-786 while the lowest fecundity was observed in GL-13001. The percent pod damage, pest susceptibility/ resistance per cent and PRSR on different chickpea genotypes in the field condition varied from 25.9 to 47.84%, 12.91 to 45.86 and from 4 to 5. In the biochemical constituents, the highest total phenol and tannin content were observed in NBeG-786 whereas the lowest protein and reducing sugar content were observed in GL-13042. Relationship between biological attributes of H. armigera and biochemical constituents in different chickpea genotypes revealed that reducing sugars, protein, total phenols and tannins content showed negative association with biological attributes of H. armigera reared on chickpea genotypes.</div>

<div>Effect of Different Chickpea Genotypes and Its Biochemical Constituents on Biological Attributes of Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner)</div>

Background: SRI and aerobic rice are one of the techniques of growing rice under water scarcity areas where meeting water requirement is becoming a global threat. Weeds are another threat to yield of rice irrespective of different establishment methods. Until checked, it can decline rice yield and quality up to more than 70%. SRI and aerobic rice have different densities of weeds and integrated weed management can be applied to suppress the weeds. Considering the current scenario, research was conducted to investigate growth, yield and bioenergetics of rice under different establishment methods and weed management.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: The experiment entitled &ldquo;Effect of crop establishment methods and weed management practices on productivity and bioenergetics of rice&rdquo; was carried out in split plot design with main plots, viz., M1- aerobic rice (AR) and M2- system of rice intensification (SRI) and five subplots W1- pre-emergence (pendimethalin @1 kg a.i ha-1) fb post-emergence (bispyribac-sodium @20g a.i ha-1) (PE+POE), W2- pre-emergence (pendimethalin @1 kg a.i ha-1) fb cono weeding at 15, 30, and 45 DAT/ DAS (PE+CW), W3- weed free (WF), W4- weedy check (WC), W5- stale seedbed followed by post-emergence herbicide (bispyribac-sodium 10% SC 20 g a.i ha-1) (SSB+POE) in split plot design with three replications taking the variety &lsquo;Pusa Basmati-1121&rsquo; as a test crop. 
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Result: Among the establishment methods, SRI recorded significantly higher growth attributes like plant height and dry matter production and yield attributes like number of panicles per hill, panicle length, number of grains per panicle, test weight, grain yield, straw yield, biological yield, and harvest index. Among the weed management treatments, WF recorded significantly higher growth attributes like plant height, number of tillers per hill, dry matter production and yield attributes like number of panicles per hill, panicle length, number of grains per panicle, test weight, grain yield, straw yield, biological yield, and harvest index that was followed by treatment PE+CW. Maximum net return and B:C ratio was observed in the treatment combinations M2W2- SRI + (PE+CW). The maximum total energy input was found in the treatment combination M1W1- AR+ (PE+POE) and the maximum total energy output was found in the treatment combination M2W3- SRI + WF. The energy intensiveness was observed to be maximum in the treatment combination M1W4- AR + WC and the maximum energy efficiency index was observed in the treatment combination M2W3- SRI+WF.

Effect of Crop Establishment Methods and Weed Management Practices on Productivity and Bioenergetics of Rice

Background: To explore the impact of agronomic practices on nodulation, nitrogenase activity and biological nitrogen fixation in hybrid pigeonpea, a field investigation was under taken at BW5 block ICRISAT development center (IDC), International Crops Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Patancheru, Hyderabad, during kharif, 2021 and 2022. 
 
Methods: The seedlings were raised in portrays in advance to onset of monsoon during last week of May (28th May in 2021 kharif and 30th May in 2022 kharif) in both the years by filling portrays with cocopeat and vermicompost in 1:1 ratio. Transplanting of 24 days and 25 days old seedlings were done on 20th June in 2021 kharif and 23th June in 2022 kharif, respectively, on the same day of dibbling in the main field at 100 cm &times; 100 cm ,120 cm &times;&nbsp;120 cm square geometry and 150 cm &times;&nbsp;60 cm. Nutrient management treatments were imposed one week after sowing. 
 
Result: Among the planting methods higher nodule number and nitrogenase activity with transplanting compared to dibbling. 120 cm &times;&nbsp;120 cm found higher nodule number plant-1 and nitrogenase activity but biological nitrogen fixation was higher with 100 cm &times;&nbsp;100 cm ha-1 basis. With respect on nutrient management practices, control performed well in terms of higher nitrogenase activity and biological nitrogen fixation and on par with integrated approach of 100% soil test based NPK + vermicompost + PSB + seed treatment with Rhizobium. So, with transplanting method of establishment, 100 &acute; 100 cm square plant geometry and 100% soil test based NPK + vermicompost + PSB + seed treatment with Rhizobium was recommended agronomic practices for hybrid pigeonpea.

Hybrid Pigeonpea (ICPH 2740) Nodular Activity and Biological Nitrogen Fixation as Influenced by Agronomic Practices

<div>Background: Feed is one of the most important parts of the livestock production system because it can account for 60-80% of production costs, besides that very elements needed by livestock to grow, develop and produce. A study has been conducted to evaluate the effects of chemical and biological urea-treated durian husk on the production performance of Kacang female goats.&nbsp;</div>

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Methods: The research method used was plotted in the 2 x 3 factorial randomized block design (RBD). The first factor was two processing methods of urease (A) and fermentation (F) and the second factor was three levels of urea, namely 1.0% (L1), 2.5% (L2) and 5% (L3), with four replicates as groups. The data were analyzed using analysis of variances and mean comparison using the least significant difference (LSD) test.</div>

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Result: The results showed however, the application of durian husk with different urea levels produced a significant effect (P&lt;0.05) on the body weight gain, hematocrit value, non-carcass weight and percentage, internal non-carcass weight and percentage, as well as non-carcass weight and percentage, of Kacang female goats. That administration of chemically and biologically processed durian fruit husk supplemented with urea up to 5.0%, can be implemented without negative effects on production performance, physiological conditions, carcass characteristics, as well as non-carcass characteristics.</div>

Performance of Kacang Goats Fed Chemically and Biologically Treated Durian Husk

The biological method of weed control is an effective option. Before implementing bio-agents, there is a need for a better understanding of the mechanisms involved in interactions by multiple agents against weeds. This covers knowledge of how plants integrate and prioritize their responses to multiple attackers. Across the globe, terrestrial ecosystems are known to be characterized by a huge diversity of species and a corresponding diversity of interactions between these species. These include species of different trophic levels of habitats on the same food chain. Plants undoubtedly play significant role as intermediaries in interactions between the insect and microbial populations with which they are involved. Plant interactions brought forth by one species can have cascading impacts on other species, influencing their abundances and the composition of communities. Several research efforts are underway to develop highly effective biological control agents to reliably control a problematic broad spectrum of weeds. Sustainable and ecosystem-compatible weed management for controlling weeds by biological means, such as insects, bio-agents, myco-herbicides and harmful Rhizobacteria. Their interaction with cultural practices and allelochemicals are some biological components of sustainable agriculture. Hence, biological agents enhance efficiency and restrict the detrimental effect of weeds compared to weeds being left alone. The challenge is to identify appropriate microbe/bioagents, which reduce weed growth. Logically, biological weed management is the only way to control weeds in eco-friendly weed management.

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