<div>Eighteen animals with various surgical conditions were divided into three groups of six animals each. Group I received ropivacaine (0.75%) @ 0.25 mg/kg b.wt at sacrococcygeal space. Group II animals received ropivacaine (0.75%) @ 0.25 mg/kg b.wt and dexmedetomidine at 5 &micro;g/kg b.wt in the sacrococcygeal space. Group III animals received ropivacaine (0.75%) @ 0.25 mg/kg b.wt and clonidine @ 2 &micro;g/kg b.wt at sacrococcygeal space. The fastest onset of analgesia was produced by ropivacaine-dexmedetomidine combination followed by ropivacaine-clonidine. RT showed non significant decrease in all groups during post epidural analgesia. A non significant increase in RR was observed in cattle following ropivacaine and ropivacaine-clonidine epidural analgesia. Where as a non significant fall in RR was noticed during ropivacaine-dexmedetomidine combination. A non significant increase in HR was recorded after epidural administration of ropivacaine in group I animals. Whereas group II and III animals showed a non significant decrease in HR throughout the period of study. ECG studies did not reveal any abnormalities except sinus arrhymia in all animals. In group I and III non significant increase in Hb and PCV was observed in the present study. Non significant decrease in Hb and PCV values were recorded in animals subjected to ropivacaine-dexmedetomidine analgesia. A non significant increase in AST, ALT was noticed in all groups of animals. The study suggests that dexmedetomidine is a better adjuvant than clonidine in epidural analgesia as far as cardio-respiratory and Haemato-biochemical parameters are concerned.&nbsp;</div>

<div>Comparative evaluation of ropivacaine, ropivacaine- dexmedetomidine and ropivacaine &ndash; clonidine combinations for epidural analgesia in cattle</div>

<div>Background: Laparotomy procedure involving caesarean sections, spaying and hernia correction are common in swine. But these animals are not receiving good standard perioperative as well as post-operative care and analgesia. The purpose of this study was to introduce an effective treatment method for the management of surgery related pain in pigs. 
 
Methods: Study was conducted in 18 clinical cases of pigs operated for the correction of either umbilical or ventral hernia. The animals were randomly divided into three groups. All the animals were premedicated with meloxicam and anaesthesia was induced and maintained with diazepam-ketamine combination. Intraperitoneal administration of ropivacaine or ropivacaine with dexmedetomidine or normal saline was given in the treatment groups. The animals were observed till 24 hours for the recording of clinical parameters such as time for induction, depth of anaesthesia, perioperative analgesia, muscle relaxation, quality of recovery, recovery time, post-operative analgesia and physiological parameters such as heart rate, respiratory rate, temperature and blood pressure.&nbsp; 
 
Result: Enhanced intraoperative and postoperative analgesia was observed following intraperitoneal infusion of ropivacaine and ropivacaine-dexmedetomidine combination in pigs. Clinical and cardio-respiratory changes were within the physiological limit after intraperitoneal administration of the drugs.</div>

​A Study on Intra-operative and Post-operative Analgesia with Intraperitoneal Ropivacaine and Dexmedetomidine in Pigs

Laboratory animal anaesthesia and analgesia are essential for ethical research, balancing welfare with scientific rigor. This review synthesizes historical practices and contemporary innovations to refine perioperative care. We evaluate the shift to inhalant/hybrid protocols for precision and compliance with the 3Rs (Replacement, Reduction, Refinement). Advancements include multimodal pain assessment (e.g., rat grimace scale) and technology-driven monitoring, enhancing detection of pain masked by anaesthesia. Innovations address physiological challenges like hypothermia and species-specific responses. Interdisciplinary One Health collaborations foster sustainable practices and translational biomarker discovery. However, barriers persist, including resource disparities, understudied chronic pain models and slow technology adoption, highlighting the need for global standardization. Case studies illustrate successes with pre-emptive analgesia and failures from outdated protocols. Practical recommendations include perioperative checklists and institutional training to harmonize welfare and research goals. Prioritizing animal welfare is fundamental to scientific excellence, urging innovation, equity and transparency.

Advances in Anaesthesia and Analgesia for Laboratory Animals- Current Practices and Future Directions: A Review

<div>The objective of present study was to select the best pre-anesthetic to be used in combination with propofol for neutering dogs. A prospective randomized study was conducted on 18 clinical cases of mongrel dogs admitted for neutering were subjected in to three groups (n=6). In group A (xylazine @ 2.2 mg/kg), group B (diazepam@ 0.25 mg/kg) and group C (medetomidine @ 40 &micro;g/kg body weight), were injected intramuscular as preanesthetics. After 3-5 minutes of pre-anesthetic, the propofol injection @ 6 mg/kg of body weight was administered intravenous as anesthetic drug in all three groups. Analgesia was tested by the presence or absence of following reflexes - tail pricking, toes pinch, pedal reflex and patellar reflex. Rapid onset (9.13 &plusmn; 1.41 minutes) and long duration (59.67&plusmn; 5.50 minutes) of analgesia was observed in group C compared other groups (onset 13.661&plusmn;1.72 A, 20.16 &plusmn; 1.75 B minutes) and duration of analgesia (48.56 &plusmn; 4.61 A and 40.66&plusmn; 5.46 B minutes). CBC, ALT, AST, ALP and blood urea nitrogen values were non-significantly (P&ge;0.5) same within and between all three groups.&nbsp;There was significant (P&ge;0.5) increase in ALT, AST, ALP, BUN and serum creatinine in group B at 24 hours interval. The results of our study showed that there was non significant decrease (P&ge;0.5) in Hb and total erythrocytes count while non-significant increase (P&ge;0.5) in total leukocyte count was noted in all three groups. &nbsp;The results showed that Medetomidine HCl in combination with propofol produce, rapid onset, and long duration of analgesia, with rapid and smooth recovery and no effects on haematological parameters of dogs.&nbsp;</div>

<div>Clinico-biochemical study on different pre-anesthetic drugs combined with propofol for neutering dogs</div>

The objective of study was to assess the quality of analgesia and record the alteration in anaesthetic indices following lumbosacral administration of lignocaine alone @ 4 mg/kg body weight in group I and its combination with butorphanol@ 0.04 mgkg body weight in group II. Onset of analgesia in both groups was evident at 5 min and reached to peak level at 15 minutes of observation. The incoordination and sedation was more marked in butorphanol groups as compared to lignocaine groups. The onset of analgesia was delayed in group II as compared to group I, whereas, duration of analgesia and standing time was significantly higher (P&lt;0.05) in group II as compared to group I. Time to recumbency did not revealed significant variation between groups. It is concluded that lignocaine alone and in-combination produced satisfactory onset of analgesia but it remained longer time in lignocaine &ndash; butorphanol group (group II) with respect to duration of analgesia and time to standing. However, this combination also showed the marked sedation and incoordination. Hence, butorphanol in combination with lignocaine was considered better for producing analgesia for longer duration operative procedure.

Anaesthetic evaluation of lignocaine alone and in-combination with butorphanol in goats

<div style="text-align:justify">Background: It is usually accepted that some degree of post-surgical pain will be commonly present. There are different pain scales adopted in veterinary practice to assess these behavioural signs to measure pain. VAS had been used in human medicine for many years to measure pain and was found equally satisfactory in dogs. Pre-emptive analgesia (PEA) is grasping popularity in recent days, the concept of which originated during the time of growing appreciation of dynamic characteristics of pain pathway for obtaining effective analgesia prior to the surgical trauma. 
Methods:&nbsp;The present study was conducted to evaluate the effects of tramadol, pentazocine lactate and meloxicam as pre-emptive analgesics in dogs premedicated with glycopyrrolate, induction and maintenance with propofol continuous rate infusion (CRI) for certain clinical and physiological parameters. The animals were randomly divided into three equal groups viz. Group-T, Group-P and Group-M comprising six animals in each group and all were premedicated with glycopyrrolate, I/M. After 10 minutes of pre-anaesthetic administration, pre-emptive analgesia was given (Tramadol in Group-T, Pentazocine lactate in Group-P and Meloxicam in Group-M intravenously). After 10 minutes of pre-emptive analgesic administration, induction was achieved with propofol I/V and also maintained by CRI method up to 1 hour. Clinical and physiological parameters were recorded at 0 (baseline) minute before premedication, thereafter at 10 min, 30 min, 1 hr, 2 hr and 3 hr after pre-emptive analgesic administration.&nbsp; 
Result:&nbsp;There was no sedation observed within 10 min following pre-emptive analgesia and quality of sedation was recorded as score-0 in all the groups. Time for induction was significantly higher in group-M as compared to group-T and P. Quality of induction in all the groups ranged from score-0 to score1, assessment of peri-operative analgesia was recorded as score-0 in group-T and group-P, whereas in group-M it ranged from score-0 to score-1. Depth of anaesthesia was recorded as score-0 to score-1 in all the groups and quality of recovery was recorded as score-0 to score-1 in group-T and group-P and score-1 to score-2 in group-M. Assessment of post-operative analgesia by VAS was significantly lower in group-T as compared to group-P and M. In all the three groups, the heart rate increased significantly at 30 min interval and thereafter it decreased significantly till the end of the study. Respiratory rate also decreased significantly till 1 hr and thereafter it gradually increased till the end of study in all the groups. Rectal temperature, SpO2, systolic pressure and diastolic pressure decreased significantly at 30 min and thereafter increased gradually and approached base values in all the groups.</div>

Evaluation of Tramadol, Pentazocine Lactate and Meloxicam as Pre-emptive Analgesics for Pain Management in Canine Ovariohysterectomy

Background: Propofol is intravenous short acting general anaesthetic most popular drug for induction and maintenance of anaesthesia in veterinary practice due to its rapid induction and smooth recovery. However, as sole general anaesthetic, it is unsatisfactory because of its poor analgesic property and causing hypotension and apnoea. Therefore, it commonly used in combination with opioid or alpha 2 agonist to minimize the untoward effects. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the sedative, analgesic and anaesthetic efficacy of propofol in combination with butorphanol, dexmedetomidine or acepromazine premedication in dogs. 
 
Methods: The present study was conducted on 18 healthy adult dogs of either sex and randomly divided into three groups (ButP, DexP and AceP) with six animals in each. Glycopyrrolate @ 0.02 mg/kg was administered intramuscularly 10 minutes prior to the anaesthetic administration in all the dogs. The animals of group ButP, DexP and AceP were premedicated intramuscularly with butorphanol @ 0.3 mg/kg b.wt., dexmedetomidine @ 10 &micro;g/kg b.wt. and acepromazine @ 0.4 mg/kg b.wt. respectively. Ten minutes later propofol was injected intravenously at a dose of 7 mg/kg b.wt. to induce general anesthesia. The following clinical parameters were recorded viz., onset of sedation, onset of anaesthesia, degree of analgesia, extent of muscle relaxation, duration of anaesthesia and complete recovery. All the data were analyzed using SPSS v 25.0 statistics software program and presented as mean&plusmn;Standard Error. 
 
Result: The onset of sedation and induction of anaesthesia was earlier in group DexP followed by AceP and ButP. Group DexP exhibited significantly (P&lt;0.05) longer duration of anaesthesia and complete recovery than groups ButP and AceP. All the groups had excellent analgesia; however animals of group DexP showed longer duration of analgesia. All the reflexes were abolished completely with longer duration of muscle relaxation in group DexP. The above anaesthetic study suggests that propofol in combination with dexmedetomidine; butorphanol or acepromazine can be safely used for inducing surgical anaesthesia in dogs. However, dexmedetomidine-propofol combination produced prolonged duration of anaesthesia with better quality suitable for long surgical procedure in dogs.

Sedative, Analgesic and Anaesthetic Evaluation of Propofol in Combination with Butorphanol, Dexmedetomidine and Acepromazine in Clinically Healthy Dogs

<div>Background: Mechanical intestinal ileus is an abdominal emergency that is potentially life threatening in cattle. Early diagnosis and surgical correction is challenging for clinician under field conditions. Successful outcome depends upon effective management of visceral pain during surgical procedure and restoration of early intestinal motility. The present study is aimed to study the quality of visceral analgesia using right paravertebral nerve block and lignocaine continuous rate of infusion in standing surgery and prokinetic effect of azithromycin.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: The present work was carried out from April 2019 to September 2021, in 6 cattle presented to the veterinary clinical complex, veterinary college and research institute, Namakkal with a history of not voiding the dung. In all the cases, clinical, haematological, biochemical, ultrasonographic, anaesthetic, prokinetic evaluation and surgical management was performed. 
&nbsp; 
Result: In the present study, inclusion of lignocaine as intravenous bolus @ 2mg/kg body weight and continuous rate infusion (CRI) dose of 50 &micro;g/kg/min produced good quality of visceral analgesia and no animal was recumbent intraoperatively.&nbsp; Prokinetic action of azithromycin was found effective to control the post-operative ileus in intestinal surgical procedures.</div>

​Surgical Management of Mechanical Intestinal Ileus under Right Paravertebral Nerve Block and Lignocaine Continuous Rate of Infusion in Cattle

Background: The present study was conducted to evaluate the anaesthetic efficacy of butorphanol, dexmedetomidine or acepromazine in combination with thiopentone sodium for inducing general anaesthesia in healthy dogs. 
 
Methods: Eighteen adult dogs of either sex were randomly divided into three groups (ButTHIO, DexTHIO and AceTHIO) with six animals in each. Ten minutes prior to the anaesthetic administration, all the dogs were administered with glycopyrrolate @ 0.02 mg/kg I/M. The animals of group ButTHIO, DexTHIO and AceTHIO were premedicated intramuscularly with butorphanol @ 0.3 mg/kg b.wt., dexmedetomidine @ 10 &micro;g/kg b.wt. and acepromazine @ 0.4 mg/kg b.wt. respectively. General anaesthesia was induced with thiopentone sodium @ 18 mg/kg b.wt. intravenously. Onset of sedation and anaesthesia, degree of analgesia, extent of muscle relaxation, duration of anaesthesia, complete recovery from anaesthesia and different reflexes were recorded for evaluation of anaesthetic efficacy. 
 
Result: The onset of sedation and induction of anaesthesia was quicker in group DexTHIO followed by AceTHIO and ButTHIO. Duration of anaesthesia and complete recovery were significantly (P&lt;0.05) longer in group DexTHIO as compared to group ButTHIO and AceTHIO. Analgesia was excellent in all the groups but persisted for longer duration in animals of group DexTHIO. All the reflexes abolished completely with longer duration of muscle relaxation in group DexTHIO. It could be concluded that thiopentone sodium in combination with either dexmedetomidine or butorphanol or acepromazine can be used safely for inducing surgical anaesthesia in dogs. However, dexmedetomidine-thiopentone combination produced prolonged duration of anaesthesia with better quality for long surgical procedure in dogs.

Comparative Anaesthetic Evaluation of Butorphanol, Dexmedetomidine or Acepromazine in Combination with Thiopentone Sodium for Inducing General Anaesthesia in Healthy Dogs

<div>Background: Ketamine is rarely used alone because of its association with poor muscle relaxation, tachycardia, catalepsy or muscle rigidity and therefore commonly used in combination with alpha 2 agonist or opioid to minimize the untoward effects. The aim of the present anaesthetic study was to evaluate the clinico-physiological effects of ketamine alone and in combination with dexmedetomidine or butorphanol for inducing adequate anaesthesia in dogs. 
 
Methods: The present anaesthetic study was conducted on 18 (eighteen) healthy dogs of either sex and randomly divided into three groups (K, DK and BK) with six animals in each group. Atropine sulphate @ 0.04 mg/ kg was administered intramuscularly 15 minutes prior to anaesthetic study to all the animals. In group K, ketamine HCl alone was administered @ 5 mg/kg by slow i/v and kept as control. In group DK and BK, after administration of atropine sulphate 15 minutes later dexmedetomidine @ 10 &micro;g/kg i/m and butorphanol @ 0.2 mg/kg i/m were administered respectively. Ten minutes later ketamine HCl was administered @ 5 mg/kg slowly intravenously in both group DK and BK to induce surgical stage of general anaesthesia. The following clinical parameters were recorded viz., onset of sedation, onset of anaesthesia, degree of analgesia, extent of muscle relaxation, duration of anaesthesia and complete recovery. The physiological parameters (rectal temperature, heart rate and respiratory rate) were recorded before anaesthetic study at 0 min. and at 10 minutes after preanaesthetic administration and then at 10, 20, 40, 60, 90, 120 and 180 minutes after ketamine anaesthesia. All the data were analyzed using SPSS v 15.0 statistics software program and presented as mean&plusmn;Standard Error. 
 
Result: The onset of sedation was quicker in group DK followed by group K and BK. Duration of anaesthesia and complete recovery in group DK was significantly (p&lt;0.01) longer than in group K and BK. The degree of analgesia was excellent in group DK and good in group K and BK. The extent of muscle relaxation was excellent in group DK, good in group BK and was poor in group K. The physiological parameters showed transient changes which compensated and remained within normal range during the observation period. The above anaesthetic study suggests that ketamine in combination with dexmedetomidine or butorphanol can be safely used for inducing adequate anaesthesia in dogs. However, dexmedetomidine-ketamine can be used safely for longer duration of surgical procedures in dogs.</div>

Comparative evaluation of ropivacaine, ropivacaine- dexmedetomidine and ropivacaine – clonidine combinations for epidural analgesia in cattle

A Study on Intra-operative and Post-operative Analgesia with Intraperitoneal Ropivacaine and Dexmedetomidine in Pigs

Advances in Anaesthesia and Analgesia for Laboratory Animals- Current Practices and Future Directions: A Review

Clinico-biochemical study on different pre-anesthetic drugs combined with propofol for neutering dogs

Anaesthetic evaluation of lignocaine alone and in-combination with butorphanol in goats

Evaluation of Tramadol, Pentazocine Lactate and Meloxicam as Pre-emptive Analgesics for Pain Management in Canine Ovariohysterectomy

Sedative, Analgesic and Anaesthetic Evaluation of Propofol in Combination with Butorphanol, Dexmedetomidine and Acepromazine in Clinically Healthy Dogs

Surgical Management of Mechanical Intestinal Ileus under Right Paravertebral Nerve Block and Lignocaine Continuous Rate of Infusion in Cattle

Comparative Anaesthetic Evaluation of Butorphanol, Dexmedetomidine or Acepromazine in Combination with Thiopentone Sodium for Inducing General Anaesthesia in Healthy Dogs

Evaluation of Clinico-physiological Effects of Ketamine Alone and in Combination with Dexmedetomidine or Butorphanol in Atropinized Dogs