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Full Research Article

Utilization of Industrial Marine-Derived Turbinella pyrum Shell By-Product as a Sustainable Source of Calcium for Growing Black Bengal Goats

V
Vibhor Agrawal1
0009-0002-8681-7902
T
Tapas Kumar Dutta1
0000-0002-5445-074X
A
Anupam Chatterjee1,*
0000-0003-2122-8912
A
Ashutosh Mahalle1
0009-0008-7623-4168
A
Asif Mohammad1
0000-0002-6321-882X
S
Saroj Rai1
0000-0002-1250-1342
S
Santanu Banik1
0000-0002-2955-300X
1ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute (Deemed University), Eastern Regional Station, Kalyani-741 235, West Bengal, India.

ABSTRACT

Background: Rising costs of conventional calcium (Ca) sources like dicalcium phosphate (DCP) have prompted interest in alternative Ca sources. Marine conch (Turbinella pyrum) shell by-products, rich in bioavailable biogenic calcium, may offer a potential eco-friendly mineral supplement for small ruminant nutrition.

Methods: Twenty-seven growing female Black Bengal goats were randomly allotted to three dietary treatments. A di-calcium phosphate (DCP)-based mineral mixture served as control (T0), while DCP was replaced by conch shell powder (CSP) at 100% (T1) or 50% (T2), with phosphorus balanced using diammonium phosphate and triple superphosphate. All mineral mixtures were formulated to provide comparable calcium (~21%) and phosphorus (~11.5%) levels, ensuring uniform mineral supply across treatments. A growth trial with 195 days observation was conducted to test the potential of CSP-sourced Ca in growing goats.

Result: CSP, an abundant industrial by-product in West Bengal, was evaluated as a sustainable alternative Ca source for goats. Complete (T1) or partial (T2; 50:50) replacement of DCP with CSP, balanced for phosphorus, produced diets with Ca, P and Ca:P ratios comparable to the control (T0). CSP-based mineral mixtures improved dry matter and crude protein intake, indicating enhanced voluntary intake and feed efficiency. However, growth rate remained similar across treatments. Ca and P levels were unaffected, as reflected by comparable urinary excretion. Observed temporal variations were physiological rather than dietary. The study concludes that CSP can fully replace DCP, with balanced P supplementation, without adverse effects on intake, mineral balance, or growth performance in goats.

INTRODUCTION

India’s 11,099 km coastline (PIB, 2026) provides abundant marine mineral resources, including shells that are increasingly generated as industrial waste. Among these, Turbinella pyrum (conch) shells processed by MSMEs in West Bengal produce large quantities of conch shell powder (CSP), which is often disposed of improperly, creating environmental and occupational concerns (Bhagat et al., 2024). Marine shells contain >95% calcium carbonate (CaCO3), mainly as calcite and aragonite forms in adult organisms, with some amorphous CaCO3 in younger shells (Xu et al., 2020; McDougall and Degnan, 2018). Compared with inorganic limestone, shell-derived CaCO3 is biogenic and marine in origin, potentially offering advantages in biological safety and mineral composition (Barros et al., 2009). Shell-based Ca sources are also considered safer than bone-derived minerals because of potential prion risks (Kim  et al., 2013; 2016). Fresh CSP is rich in Ca and contains trace minerals such as Zn, Fe, Cu, Co, Mg and Mn (Bhagat et al., 2024).
       
Calcium is essential for skeletal integrity, metabolism and productive performance in livestock (NRC, 2005; Kim et al., 2020). However, Ca bioavailability is influenced by dietary antinutrients such as phytic and oxalic acids (Kiarie and Nyachoti, 2010). Although dicalcium phosphate (DCP) is widely used in livestock diets, its rising cost has increased interest in locally available alternatives. Recent work showed that fresh T. pyrum shell powder supplies essential minerals for livestock and supports sustainable use of marine by-products (Bhagat et al., 2025). T. pyrum shell powder, previously evaluated only in calves, may also serve as a viable calcium source for mineral mixtures in small ruminants.
       
The Black Bengal goat, indigenous to eastern India and Bangladesh, is valued for high prolificacy, superior meat quality, early maturity and strong adaptability under low-input systems. Therefore, this study evaluated industrial marine-derived T. pyrum shell by-product (CSP) as a sustainable alternative Ca source by replacing DCP in mineral mixtures (with balanced phosphorus) in diets of growing Black Bengal goats, assessing voluntary intake, growth performance and Ca-P status in urine.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study location and sourcing of mineral materials
 
The experiment was conducted at the Animal Nutrition Laboratory and Experimental Goat Farm of ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute (NDRI), Eastern Regional Station (ERS), Kalyani, West Bengal, India (22o56'30"N; 88o32'04"E). The study was approved by the Scientific Committee of the Deemed University (NDRI/22-P-AN-03) and complied with institutional animal ethics guidelines. Feed-grade dicalcium phosphate (DCP) was procured from Narmada Gelatines Ltd., Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, whereas raw powdered conch shell (Turbinella pyrum; CSP) waste was obtained from a local MSME-based conch industry.
 
Experimental animals and management
 
A total of 27 female growing Black Bengal goats were randomly allocated to three dietary treatments (n = 9 per treatment) after stratification for comparable initial age and body weight (Table 3). The mean initial age was 7.56± 1.24, 7.61±1.45 and 7.89±1.27 months for T0, T1 and T2, respectively. Animals were housed individually in well-ventilated pens and subjected to a 15-day adaptation before the trial. The shed was disinfected with lime, cleaned daily with phenyl and animals were vaccinated against goat pox and PPR and dewormed with albendazole and ivermectin.
 
Experimental design, diets, mineral sources and treatments
 
The growth trial lasted 195 days. Goats were fed a total mixed ration (TMR) on a dry matter basis in a 40:40:20 proportion of green fodder:concentrate mixture:paddy straw. The concentrate mixture was formulated to approximately 20.18% crude protein (CP) and 75.25% total digestible nutrients (TDN). Feed was offered twice daily ad libitum and fresh drinking water was provided twice daily. Treatments differed only in the mineral mixture included at 2% of the concentrate. T0 served as the control with a conventional DCP-based mineral mixture. In T1, DCP was completely replaced by CSP as the main Ca source, with phosphorus balanced using diammonium phosphate (DAP) and triple superphosphate (TSP). In T2, 50% of DCP was replaced by CSP, with P similarly balanced using DAP/TSP. All mineral mixtures were formulated to be comparable in Ca (≈ 21%) and P (≈11.5%). Prior to mixing, mineral mixtures were sieved using an ASTM No. 60 (250 µm) stainless-steel test sieve.

Chemical analysis of feeds and fibre fractions
 
Representative samples of TMR were analyzed in quadruplicate for dry matter (DM), organic matter (OM), ether extract (EE) and total ash using AOAC (2012) procedures. Nitrogen content was determined by the Kjeldahl method (AOAC, 1995) and CP was calculated as N x 6.25. Ash was determined by incineration at 550-600oC for 3 h and OM was calculated as 100 - ash. Fibre fractions (NDF, ADF, hemicellulose, cellulose and ADL) were estimated using the Van Soest detergent system (Van Soest  et al., 1991). Total carbohydrate (TCHO) was calculated as 100 - (CP + EE + ash) on a DM basis.
 
Mineral analysis and digestion procedures
 
Calcium was analyzed using an atomic absorption spectro-photometer (Agilent 240AA). Mineral source samples (CSP and DCP) were digested using a di-acid mixture of HNO3:HClO2 (2:1) following Palma et al., (2015), whereas feed/TMR were digested with a tri-acid mixture of HNO3:HClO2:H2SO4 (3:2:1). About 0.5-2.0 g sample was digested in a Gerhardt TT Turbotherm system, diluted to 100 mL and filtered through Whatman No. 42 paper. Lanthanum was added to all standards and samples to achieve a final concentration of 0.2% (w/v) to minimize chemical interference in Ca estimation. Phosphorus was determined colorimetrically by the method of O’Dell (1993), while urinary P was measured using a commercial photometric kit.
 
Urine sampling and Ca/P estimation
 
Urine samples were collected on Days 0, 90 and 180. Approximately 20 mL spot urine was collected by mid-stream free catch around 4 h post-feeding following validated protocols (Santos  et al., 2017; 2018). Urinary Ca was measured by AAS and urinary P using a photometric kit.
 
Recording of feed intake, digestibility and growth performance
 
Daily feed offered and refusals were recorded individually and DM of feeds and refusals was determined weekly for correction. Total dry matter intake (TDMI) and crude protein intake (CPI) were expressed as g/day, kg/100 kg BW and g/kg W0.75. A digestion trial was conducted at the end of the growth trial with 6 days collection period from all experimental animals for evaluation of DM, Ca and P digestibility. Body weight was recorded fortnightly before feeding. Average daily gain (ADG) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were calculated as:
  
 
 
 
 
Statistical analysis
 
Chemical composition and growth performance data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA (Snedecor and Cochran, 1994). Intake, ADG and FCR were analyzed using two-way ANOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and period as a random effect, including their interaction. All analyses were performed using SPSS 26.0 and mean separation was done using Tukey’s HSD at p<0.05, p<0.01 and p<0.001.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Mineral profile of conch shell powder and dicalcium phosphate
 
The chemical and mineral composition of conch shell powder (CSP) and dicalcium phosphate (DCP) is presented in Table 1. Significant differences were observed between the two mineral sources for most parameters. CSP contained significantly higher organic matter than DCP (p<0.001), whereas total ash was greater in DCP (p<0.001). Acid-insoluble ash did not differ significantly (p>0.05), indicating similar levels of indigestible mineral fractions. Calcium concentration was markedly higher in CSP (34.92%) than in DCP (23.59%; p<0.001), while phosphorus was substantially greater in DCP (18.94%) compared with CSP (0.20%; p<0.001). Magnesium content was also higher in DCP (p<0.001). Among trace minerals, DCP had significantly higher Zn, Cu, Mn and Co (p<0.01), whereas Fe was greater in CSP (p<0.001). These findings indicate that CSP is a superior source of Ca and Fe, whereas DCP provides higher P and certain trace minerals, reflecting inherent compositional differences between the two supplements.

Table 1: Comparative chemical and mineral composition of conch shell powder and di-calcium phosphate.


 
Chemical and mineral composition of different feeds – Total mixed rations (TMR)
 
No significant differences were observed among T0, T1 and T2 TMRs for OM, CP, EE, TCHO, total ash, or fibre fractions (NDF, ADF, cellulose, lignin, hemicellulose; p>0.05), confirming that the diets were nutritionally comparable (Table 2). Calcium and phosphorus concentrations were also similar across treatments (p>0.05), demonstrating that the TMRs were iso-mineral with respect to these macro-minerals and ensuring that any subsequent animal responses could be attributed to mineral source rather than diet composition.

Table 2: Chemical composition of different treatment total mixed rations (TMRs) used during growth trial in growing goats.


       
Complete replacement of DCP with CSP in T1 and 50% replacement in T2, achieved Ca and P levels comparable to the control T0. The calculated Ca:P ratios were 2.04 (T0), 2.00 (T1) and 2.21 (T2), which lie within the recommended range for goats. A Ca:P ratio of 2:1 or higher has been recommended by NRC (1985) to reduce the risk of urinary calculi in small ruminants and balanced mineral ratios have been shown to have a protective effect against calculi formation (Gianesella et al., 2010).
 
Voluntary intake pattern, digestibility and growth performance
 
Dietary treatment significantly affected voluntary feed intake, whereas growth performance traits were largely unaffected (Table 4). Total dry matter intake (DMI; g/day/goat) differed among treatments (p<0.001), with higher intake in T1 and T2 than in T0. Similar trends were observed when DMI was expressed as kg/100 kg BW and g/kg W0.75 (p<0.001). Period effects were significant for all DMI indices (p<0.001), but treatment ´ period interaction was not significant, indicating consistent treatment responses over time. Crude protein intake (CPI) followed a similar pattern: total CPI was highest in T1, intermediate in T2 and lowest in T0 (p<0.001). When expressed relative to BW and metabolic BW, CPI was also greater in T1 and T2 than in T0 (p<0.001). A significant treatment x period interaction for CPI (p<0.001) suggested differential protein intake responses across periods.
       
The apparent digestibility of DM was identical among three treatments (Table 3). Whereas, Ca digestibility was significantly influenced by dietary treatment (p<0.001). Treatment T1 and T2 exhibited significantly higher Ca digestibility compared to T0. P digestibility was also significantly affected by treatment (p = 0.009). T1 showed the highest P digestibility (60.73%), which was significantly greater than T0 and T2.

Table 3: Voluntary intake pattern of different nutrients and growth performance in growing goats under different treatments.


       
Initial and final body weights did not differ among treatments (p>0.05), confirming baseline uniformity and comparable final outcomes (Table 3). Average daily gain (ADG) was numerically higher in T1 and T2 than in T0 but not statistically different (p>0.05). Feed conversion ratio (FCR) differed significantly among treatments (p<0.001): T1 showed the most efficient utilization, followed by T2, while T0 had the highest (poorest) FCR. Period and treatment ´ period effects were also significant for FCR (p<0.001), indicating temporal variation in feed efficiency. Overall, calcium source influenced nutrient intake and feed efficiency, whereas growth rate remained comparable among treatments.
       
Conch shell powder (CSP), an abundant industrial by-product in West Bengal, represents a promising alternative calcium source for livestock. Previous work at ICAR–NDRI, ERS Kalyani first evaluated this material in crossbred calves. Because CSP is predominantly biogenic CaCO3 (Barros et al., 2009), its nutritional effects are expected to be comparable to-or potentially better than-inorganic CaCO3 (Bhagat  et al., 2025). In the present study, CSP inclusion (T1 and T2) increased DMI relative to the control, suggesting improved palatability and/or a more balanced mineral supply that may favor rumen function and voluntary intake. Higher CPI in T1 and T2 likely supported greater microbial protein synthesis, a key driver of amino acid supply in growing ruminants.
       
Findings align with earlier evidence that biogenic calcium sources can effectively replace conventional minerals in livestock diets (Bhagat  et al., 2024; 2025). Similar growth responses across calcium sources were reported in pigs by Santana et al., (2018) and in laying hens by Safaa et al., (2008). Olgun et al., (2015) found no FCR differences when limestone was partially replaced with eggshell or oyster shell in poultry, while Badejo et al., (2019) observed no effects of various Ca sources on intake or FCR in spent layers. Conversely, Oso et al., (2011) reported higher intake and gain in broilers fed oyster shell versus limestone, indicating species- and stage-dependent responses. The enhanced feed efficiency in T1 and T2 observed in the present study may be explained by greater feed intake coupled with a marginal improvement in growth performance compared with the control group (T0).
       
Overall, replacing DCP with CSP enhanced nutrient intake and feed efficiency without altering growth rate, indicating that growing goats maintained growth within physiological limits while effectively utilizing the alternative Ca source. These results support the strategic use of locally available CSP as a sustainable mineral supplement to optimize nutrient utilization in small ruminants.
 
Calcium and phosphorus concentration in urine
 
Urinary calcium concentration declined significantly over time (p<0.001), with higher values on Day 0 than on Days 90 and 180, irrespective of dietary treatment (Table 4). No significant treatment effect or treatment x period interaction was observed, indicating similar patterns of urinary Ca excretion across groups. Urinary phosphorus was influenced by period (p = 0.011), being highest on Day 90, lowest on Day 0 and intermediate on Day 180, while dietary treatment and interaction effects were non-significant, suggesting comparable P availability among treatments.

Table 4: Calcium and phosphorus concentration in urine of growing goats affected by different treatments.


       
Livestock productivity depends on the understanding of diverse production systems and socio-economic conditions. With growing industrialization, developing green and innovative feed formulations is essential to improve growth performance, feed efficiency and sustainability in livestock production systems (Awad et al., 2025; Du et al., 2025; Rajeev et al., 2025). Hence, replacing conventional DCP-sourced Ca with biogenic conch shell powder (as new Ca source) in the present study increased Ca and P digestibility and had no adverse effect on  Ca and P excretion pattern through urine in growing goats. The temporal decline in urinary Ca likely reflects physiological adaptation and improved mineral utilization over time, while the mid-trial rise in urinary P (Day 90) suggests dynamic but well-regulated P metabolism. Consistent with this, Bhagat et al., (2025) reported reduced fecal excretion of Ca and P in heifers fed CSP, indicating improved mineral digestibility compared with DCP.
       
This study, along with earlier reports (Bhagat  et al., 2024; 2025), confirms conch shell powder (CSP), an MSME by-product, as a high-calcium (>34%) resource suitable for livestock mineral mixtures. Its use recycles shell waste and reduces environmental pollution. Future work should assess nutrient utilization, blood minerals, CSP particle size differences and creatinine-normalized urine analysis.

CONCLUSION

Conch shell powder (CSP), an abundant industrial by-product in West Bengal, emerges as a sustainable and economical alternative source of calcium and trace minerals (Mg, Zn, Mn, Cu, Fe) for goat nutrition. Complete replacement of dicalcium phosphate (DCP) with CSP (T1) and partial replacement (50:50; T2) maintained dietary Ca and P concentrations and optimal Ca:P ratios comparable to the control. CSP-based mineral supplementation improved DM and CP intake with increased Ca and P digestibility and enhanced feed efficiency without affecting growth performance. Urinary Ca and P levels remained within normal physiological limits, indicating no adverse metabolic effects. Overall, CSP can safely and effectively replace DCP, when appropriately balanced with phosphorus, without compromising intake, mineral balance, or growth performance in goats.
 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The present study was supported by ICAR–National Dairy Research Institute, Eastern Regional Station, Kalyani, West Bengal, India.
 
Disclaimers
 
The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.
Ethics Statement
 
The study was approved by the Scientific Committee of ICAR–National Dairy Research Institute (Deemed University) under approval number NDRI/22-P-AN-03.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. No funding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

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    Full Research Article

    Utilization of Industrial Marine-Derived Turbinella pyrum Shell By-Product as a Sustainable Source of Calcium for Growing Black Bengal Goats

    V
    Vibhor Agrawal1
    0009-0002-8681-7902
    T
    Tapas Kumar Dutta1
    0000-0002-5445-074X
    A
    Anupam Chatterjee1,*
    0000-0003-2122-8912
    A
    Ashutosh Mahalle1
    0009-0008-7623-4168
    A
    Asif Mohammad1
    0000-0002-6321-882X
    S
    Saroj Rai1
    0000-0002-1250-1342
    S
    Santanu Banik1
    0000-0002-2955-300X
    1ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute (Deemed University), Eastern Regional Station, Kalyani-741 235, West Bengal, India.

    ABSTRACT

    Background: Rising costs of conventional calcium (Ca) sources like dicalcium phosphate (DCP) have prompted interest in alternative Ca sources. Marine conch (Turbinella pyrum) shell by-products, rich in bioavailable biogenic calcium, may offer a potential eco-friendly mineral supplement for small ruminant nutrition.

    Methods: Twenty-seven growing female Black Bengal goats were randomly allotted to three dietary treatments. A di-calcium phosphate (DCP)-based mineral mixture served as control (T0), while DCP was replaced by conch shell powder (CSP) at 100% (T1) or 50% (T2), with phosphorus balanced using diammonium phosphate and triple superphosphate. All mineral mixtures were formulated to provide comparable calcium (~21%) and phosphorus (~11.5%) levels, ensuring uniform mineral supply across treatments. A growth trial with 195 days observation was conducted to test the potential of CSP-sourced Ca in growing goats.

    Result: CSP, an abundant industrial by-product in West Bengal, was evaluated as a sustainable alternative Ca source for goats. Complete (T1) or partial (T2; 50:50) replacement of DCP with CSP, balanced for phosphorus, produced diets with Ca, P and Ca:P ratios comparable to the control (T0). CSP-based mineral mixtures improved dry matter and crude protein intake, indicating enhanced voluntary intake and feed efficiency. However, growth rate remained similar across treatments. Ca and P levels were unaffected, as reflected by comparable urinary excretion. Observed temporal variations were physiological rather than dietary. The study concludes that CSP can fully replace DCP, with balanced P supplementation, without adverse effects on intake, mineral balance, or growth performance in goats.

    INTRODUCTION

    India’s 11,099 km coastline (PIB, 2026) provides abundant marine mineral resources, including shells that are increasingly generated as industrial waste. Among these, Turbinella pyrum (conch) shells processed by MSMEs in West Bengal produce large quantities of conch shell powder (CSP), which is often disposed of improperly, creating environmental and occupational concerns (Bhagat et al., 2024). Marine shells contain >95% calcium carbonate (CaCO3), mainly as calcite and aragonite forms in adult organisms, with some amorphous CaCO3 in younger shells (Xu et al., 2020; McDougall and Degnan, 2018). Compared with inorganic limestone, shell-derived CaCO3 is biogenic and marine in origin, potentially offering advantages in biological safety and mineral composition (Barros et al., 2009). Shell-based Ca sources are also considered safer than bone-derived minerals because of potential prion risks (Kim  et al., 2013; 2016). Fresh CSP is rich in Ca and contains trace minerals such as Zn, Fe, Cu, Co, Mg and Mn (Bhagat et al., 2024).
           
    Calcium is essential for skeletal integrity, metabolism and productive performance in livestock (NRC, 2005; Kim et al., 2020). However, Ca bioavailability is influenced by dietary antinutrients such as phytic and oxalic acids (Kiarie and Nyachoti, 2010). Although dicalcium phosphate (DCP) is widely used in livestock diets, its rising cost has increased interest in locally available alternatives. Recent work showed that fresh T. pyrum shell powder supplies essential minerals for livestock and supports sustainable use of marine by-products (Bhagat et al., 2025). T. pyrum shell powder, previously evaluated only in calves, may also serve as a viable calcium source for mineral mixtures in small ruminants.
           
    The Black Bengal goat, indigenous to eastern India and Bangladesh, is valued for high prolificacy, superior meat quality, early maturity and strong adaptability under low-input systems. Therefore, this study evaluated industrial marine-derived T. pyrum shell by-product (CSP) as a sustainable alternative Ca source by replacing DCP in mineral mixtures (with balanced phosphorus) in diets of growing Black Bengal goats, assessing voluntary intake, growth performance and Ca-P status in urine.

    MATERIALS AND METHODS

    Study location and sourcing of mineral materials
     
    The experiment was conducted at the Animal Nutrition Laboratory and Experimental Goat Farm of ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute (NDRI), Eastern Regional Station (ERS), Kalyani, West Bengal, India (22o56'30"N; 88o32'04"E). The study was approved by the Scientific Committee of the Deemed University (NDRI/22-P-AN-03) and complied with institutional animal ethics guidelines. Feed-grade dicalcium phosphate (DCP) was procured from Narmada Gelatines Ltd., Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, whereas raw powdered conch shell (Turbinella pyrum; CSP) waste was obtained from a local MSME-based conch industry.
     
    Experimental animals and management
     
    A total of 27 female growing Black Bengal goats were randomly allocated to three dietary treatments (n = 9 per treatment) after stratification for comparable initial age and body weight (Table 3). The mean initial age was 7.56± 1.24, 7.61±1.45 and 7.89±1.27 months for T0, T1 and T2, respectively. Animals were housed individually in well-ventilated pens and subjected to a 15-day adaptation before the trial. The shed was disinfected with lime, cleaned daily with phenyl and animals were vaccinated against goat pox and PPR and dewormed with albendazole and ivermectin.
     
    Experimental design, diets, mineral sources and treatments
     
    The growth trial lasted 195 days. Goats were fed a total mixed ration (TMR) on a dry matter basis in a 40:40:20 proportion of green fodder:concentrate mixture:paddy straw. The concentrate mixture was formulated to approximately 20.18% crude protein (CP) and 75.25% total digestible nutrients (TDN). Feed was offered twice daily ad libitum and fresh drinking water was provided twice daily. Treatments differed only in the mineral mixture included at 2% of the concentrate. T0 served as the control with a conventional DCP-based mineral mixture. In T1, DCP was completely replaced by CSP as the main Ca source, with phosphorus balanced using diammonium phosphate (DAP) and triple superphosphate (TSP). In T2, 50% of DCP was replaced by CSP, with P similarly balanced using DAP/TSP. All mineral mixtures were formulated to be comparable in Ca (≈ 21%) and P (≈11.5%). Prior to mixing, mineral mixtures were sieved using an ASTM No. 60 (250 µm) stainless-steel test sieve.

    Chemical analysis of feeds and fibre fractions
     
    Representative samples of TMR were analyzed in quadruplicate for dry matter (DM), organic matter (OM), ether extract (EE) and total ash using AOAC (2012) procedures. Nitrogen content was determined by the Kjeldahl method (AOAC, 1995) and CP was calculated as N x 6.25. Ash was determined by incineration at 550-600oC for 3 h and OM was calculated as 100 - ash. Fibre fractions (NDF, ADF, hemicellulose, cellulose and ADL) were estimated using the Van Soest detergent system (Van Soest  et al., 1991). Total carbohydrate (TCHO) was calculated as 100 - (CP + EE + ash) on a DM basis.
     
    Mineral analysis and digestion procedures
     
    Calcium was analyzed using an atomic absorption spectro-photometer (Agilent 240AA). Mineral source samples (CSP and DCP) were digested using a di-acid mixture of HNO3:HClO2 (2:1) following Palma et al., (2015), whereas feed/TMR were digested with a tri-acid mixture of HNO3:HClO2:H2SO4 (3:2:1). About 0.5-2.0 g sample was digested in a Gerhardt TT Turbotherm system, diluted to 100 mL and filtered through Whatman No. 42 paper. Lanthanum was added to all standards and samples to achieve a final concentration of 0.2% (w/v) to minimize chemical interference in Ca estimation. Phosphorus was determined colorimetrically by the method of O’Dell (1993), while urinary P was measured using a commercial photometric kit.
     
    Urine sampling and Ca/P estimation
     
    Urine samples were collected on Days 0, 90 and 180. Approximately 20 mL spot urine was collected by mid-stream free catch around 4 h post-feeding following validated protocols (Santos  et al., 2017; 2018). Urinary Ca was measured by AAS and urinary P using a photometric kit.
     
    Recording of feed intake, digestibility and growth performance
     
    Daily feed offered and refusals were recorded individually and DM of feeds and refusals was determined weekly for correction. Total dry matter intake (TDMI) and crude protein intake (CPI) were expressed as g/day, kg/100 kg BW and g/kg W0.75. A digestion trial was conducted at the end of the growth trial with 6 days collection period from all experimental animals for evaluation of DM, Ca and P digestibility. Body weight was recorded fortnightly before feeding. Average daily gain (ADG) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were calculated as:
      
     
     
     
     
    Statistical analysis
     
    Chemical composition and growth performance data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA (Snedecor and Cochran, 1994). Intake, ADG and FCR were analyzed using two-way ANOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and period as a random effect, including their interaction. All analyses were performed using SPSS 26.0 and mean separation was done using Tukey’s HSD at p<0.05, p<0.01 and p<0.001.

    RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

    Mineral profile of conch shell powder and dicalcium phosphate
     
    The chemical and mineral composition of conch shell powder (CSP) and dicalcium phosphate (DCP) is presented in Table 1. Significant differences were observed between the two mineral sources for most parameters. CSP contained significantly higher organic matter than DCP (p<0.001), whereas total ash was greater in DCP (p<0.001). Acid-insoluble ash did not differ significantly (p>0.05), indicating similar levels of indigestible mineral fractions. Calcium concentration was markedly higher in CSP (34.92%) than in DCP (23.59%; p<0.001), while phosphorus was substantially greater in DCP (18.94%) compared with CSP (0.20%; p<0.001). Magnesium content was also higher in DCP (p<0.001). Among trace minerals, DCP had significantly higher Zn, Cu, Mn and Co (p<0.01), whereas Fe was greater in CSP (p<0.001). These findings indicate that CSP is a superior source of Ca and Fe, whereas DCP provides higher P and certain trace minerals, reflecting inherent compositional differences between the two supplements.

    Table 1: Comparative chemical and mineral composition of conch shell powder and di-calcium phosphate.


     
    Chemical and mineral composition of different feeds – Total mixed rations (TMR)
     
    No significant differences were observed among T0, T1 and T2 TMRs for OM, CP, EE, TCHO, total ash, or fibre fractions (NDF, ADF, cellulose, lignin, hemicellulose; p>0.05), confirming that the diets were nutritionally comparable (Table 2). Calcium and phosphorus concentrations were also similar across treatments (p>0.05), demonstrating that the TMRs were iso-mineral with respect to these macro-minerals and ensuring that any subsequent animal responses could be attributed to mineral source rather than diet composition.

    Table 2: Chemical composition of different treatment total mixed rations (TMRs) used during growth trial in growing goats.


           
    Complete replacement of DCP with CSP in T1 and 50% replacement in T2, achieved Ca and P levels comparable to the control T0. The calculated Ca:P ratios were 2.04 (T0), 2.00 (T1) and 2.21 (T2), which lie within the recommended range for goats. A Ca:P ratio of 2:1 or higher has been recommended by NRC (1985) to reduce the risk of urinary calculi in small ruminants and balanced mineral ratios have been shown to have a protective effect against calculi formation (Gianesella et al., 2010).
     
    Voluntary intake pattern, digestibility and growth performance
     
    Dietary treatment significantly affected voluntary feed intake, whereas growth performance traits were largely unaffected (Table 4). Total dry matter intake (DMI; g/day/goat) differed among treatments (p<0.001), with higher intake in T1 and T2 than in T0. Similar trends were observed when DMI was expressed as kg/100 kg BW and g/kg W0.75 (p<0.001). Period effects were significant for all DMI indices (p<0.001), but treatment ´ period interaction was not significant, indicating consistent treatment responses over time. Crude protein intake (CPI) followed a similar pattern: total CPI was highest in T1, intermediate in T2 and lowest in T0 (p<0.001). When expressed relative to BW and metabolic BW, CPI was also greater in T1 and T2 than in T0 (p<0.001). A significant treatment x period interaction for CPI (p<0.001) suggested differential protein intake responses across periods.
           
    The apparent digestibility of DM was identical among three treatments (Table 3). Whereas, Ca digestibility was significantly influenced by dietary treatment (p<0.001). Treatment T1 and T2 exhibited significantly higher Ca digestibility compared to T0. P digestibility was also significantly affected by treatment (p = 0.009). T1 showed the highest P digestibility (60.73%), which was significantly greater than T0 and T2.

    Table 3: Voluntary intake pattern of different nutrients and growth performance in growing goats under different treatments.


           
    Initial and final body weights did not differ among treatments (p>0.05), confirming baseline uniformity and comparable final outcomes (Table 3). Average daily gain (ADG) was numerically higher in T1 and T2 than in T0 but not statistically different (p>0.05). Feed conversion ratio (FCR) differed significantly among treatments (p<0.001): T1 showed the most efficient utilization, followed by T2, while T0 had the highest (poorest) FCR. Period and treatment ´ period effects were also significant for FCR (p<0.001), indicating temporal variation in feed efficiency. Overall, calcium source influenced nutrient intake and feed efficiency, whereas growth rate remained comparable among treatments.
           
    Conch shell powder (CSP), an abundant industrial by-product in West Bengal, represents a promising alternative calcium source for livestock. Previous work at ICAR–NDRI, ERS Kalyani first evaluated this material in crossbred calves. Because CSP is predominantly biogenic CaCO3 (Barros et al., 2009), its nutritional effects are expected to be comparable to-or potentially better than-inorganic CaCO3 (Bhagat  et al., 2025). In the present study, CSP inclusion (T1 and T2) increased DMI relative to the control, suggesting improved palatability and/or a more balanced mineral supply that may favor rumen function and voluntary intake. Higher CPI in T1 and T2 likely supported greater microbial protein synthesis, a key driver of amino acid supply in growing ruminants.
           
    Findings align with earlier evidence that biogenic calcium sources can effectively replace conventional minerals in livestock diets (Bhagat  et al., 2024; 2025). Similar growth responses across calcium sources were reported in pigs by Santana et al., (2018) and in laying hens by Safaa et al., (2008). Olgun et al., (2015) found no FCR differences when limestone was partially replaced with eggshell or oyster shell in poultry, while Badejo et al., (2019) observed no effects of various Ca sources on intake or FCR in spent layers. Conversely, Oso et al., (2011) reported higher intake and gain in broilers fed oyster shell versus limestone, indicating species- and stage-dependent responses. The enhanced feed efficiency in T1 and T2 observed in the present study may be explained by greater feed intake coupled with a marginal improvement in growth performance compared with the control group (T0).
           
    Overall, replacing DCP with CSP enhanced nutrient intake and feed efficiency without altering growth rate, indicating that growing goats maintained growth within physiological limits while effectively utilizing the alternative Ca source. These results support the strategic use of locally available CSP as a sustainable mineral supplement to optimize nutrient utilization in small ruminants.
     
    Calcium and phosphorus concentration in urine
     
    Urinary calcium concentration declined significantly over time (p<0.001), with higher values on Day 0 than on Days 90 and 180, irrespective of dietary treatment (Table 4). No significant treatment effect or treatment x period interaction was observed, indicating similar patterns of urinary Ca excretion across groups. Urinary phosphorus was influenced by period (p = 0.011), being highest on Day 90, lowest on Day 0 and intermediate on Day 180, while dietary treatment and interaction effects were non-significant, suggesting comparable P availability among treatments.

    Table 4: Calcium and phosphorus concentration in urine of growing goats affected by different treatments.


           
    Livestock productivity depends on the understanding of diverse production systems and socio-economic conditions. With growing industrialization, developing green and innovative feed formulations is essential to improve growth performance, feed efficiency and sustainability in livestock production systems (Awad et al., 2025; Du et al., 2025; Rajeev et al., 2025). Hence, replacing conventional DCP-sourced Ca with biogenic conch shell powder (as new Ca source) in the present study increased Ca and P digestibility and had no adverse effect on  Ca and P excretion pattern through urine in growing goats. The temporal decline in urinary Ca likely reflects physiological adaptation and improved mineral utilization over time, while the mid-trial rise in urinary P (Day 90) suggests dynamic but well-regulated P metabolism. Consistent with this, Bhagat et al., (2025) reported reduced fecal excretion of Ca and P in heifers fed CSP, indicating improved mineral digestibility compared with DCP.
           
    This study, along with earlier reports (Bhagat  et al., 2024; 2025), confirms conch shell powder (CSP), an MSME by-product, as a high-calcium (>34%) resource suitable for livestock mineral mixtures. Its use recycles shell waste and reduces environmental pollution. Future work should assess nutrient utilization, blood minerals, CSP particle size differences and creatinine-normalized urine analysis.

    CONCLUSION

    Conch shell powder (CSP), an abundant industrial by-product in West Bengal, emerges as a sustainable and economical alternative source of calcium and trace minerals (Mg, Zn, Mn, Cu, Fe) for goat nutrition. Complete replacement of dicalcium phosphate (DCP) with CSP (T1) and partial replacement (50:50; T2) maintained dietary Ca and P concentrations and optimal Ca:P ratios comparable to the control. CSP-based mineral supplementation improved DM and CP intake with increased Ca and P digestibility and enhanced feed efficiency without affecting growth performance. Urinary Ca and P levels remained within normal physiological limits, indicating no adverse metabolic effects. Overall, CSP can safely and effectively replace DCP, when appropriately balanced with phosphorus, without compromising intake, mineral balance, or growth performance in goats.
     

    ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

    The present study was supported by ICAR–National Dairy Research Institute, Eastern Regional Station, Kalyani, West Bengal, India.
     
    Disclaimers
     
    The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.
    Ethics Statement
     
    The study was approved by the Scientific Committee of ICAR–National Dairy Research Institute (Deemed University) under approval number NDRI/22-P-AN-03.

    CONFLICT OF INTEREST

    The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. No funding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

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