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Current IssueEditorial BoardOnline First ArticlesArchive

Research Article

volume 52 issue 5 (may 2018) : 786-792,   Doi: 10.18805/ijar.B-3071

Investigation of foot-and mouth disease outbreak in a pig farm at Kollam district of Kerala, India 
 

M
M. Rout
S
S. Subramaniam
J
J.K. Mohapatra
B
B.B. Dash
B
B. Pattnaik
1ICAR-Project Directorate on Foot and Mouth Disease, Mukteswar - 263 138, Nainital, India
Cite article:- Rout M., Subramaniam S., Mohapatra J.K., Dash B.B., Pattnaik B. (2017). Investigation of foot-and mouth disease outbreak in a pig farm at Kollam district of Kerala, India. Indian Journal of Animal Research. 52(5): 786-792. doi: 10.18805/ijar.B-3071.

ABSTRACT

The present paper describes the investigation of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) outbreak in a private pig farm at Kotty in Kollam district of Kerala during October 2013. During the clinical phase, severe vesicular lesions on snout and skin around the coronary bands were observed in pigs. A total of 48 serum samples and 12 clinical samples (ruptured snout epithelia) were collected. All serum samples were subjected to indirect 3AB nonstructural protein (NSP) ELISA and liquid phase blocking (LPB) ELISA. In 3AB NSP ELISA, all serum samples were found positive for NSP antibodies indicating infection. In LPB ELISA, 42 of 48 (87.5%) pigs were found to have protective log10 antibody titre of ³1.8 against FMD virus serotypes O, A and Asia 1. All the clinical materials were found positive for serotype O in antigen detection ELISA as well as in multiplex reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (mRT-PCR). In VP1 region-based phylogenetic analysis, the serotype O isolates causing the outbreak were found to conglomerate within Ind2001 lineage. Pigs infected with FMD may pose rigorous threat to other susceptible domestic livestock as they exhale enormous quantity of virus. As a consequence, they should be included under prophylactic vaccination and surveillance programmes ongoing in the country.

REFERENCES

  1. Alexandersen, S., Quan, M., Murphy, C., Knight, J. and Zhang, Z. (2003). Studies of quantitative parameters of virus excretion and transmission in pigs and cattle experimentally infected with foot-and-mouth disease virus. J. Comp. Path., 129: 268-282.
  2. Bhattacharya, S., Pattnaik, B. and Venkataramanan, R. (1996). Development and application of sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for type identification of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus in direct field materials. Indian J. Anim. Sci., 66: 1-9. 
  3. Chang, T.C., Tsai, C.C., Chang, G.N., Kuo, M. and Chung, W.B. (1997). An outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease in pigs in southern Taiwan. J. Chin. Soc. Vet. Sci., 23: 269-273.
  4. Charleston, B., Bankowski, B.M., Gubbins, S., Chase-Topping, M.E., Schley, D., Howey, R., Barnett, P.V., Gibson, D., Juleff, N.D. and Woolhouse, M.E. (2011). Relationship between clinical signs and transmission of an infectious disease and the implications for control. Science., 332: 726-729.
  5. Domingo, E., Escarmis, C., Baranowski, E., Ruiz-Jarabo, C.M., Carrillo, E., Nunez, J.I. and Sobrino, F. (2003). Evolution of foot-and-    mouth disease virus. Virus Res., 91: 47-63.
  6. Donaldson, A.I. (1987). Foot-and-mouth disease: the principal features. Irish Vet. J., 41: 325-327.
  7. Donaldson, A.I. (1999). Airborne spread of foot-and-mouth disease. Microbiol. Today., 118: 118-119.
  8. Donaldson, A.I. and Alexandersen, S. (2003). The virological determinants of the epidemiology of foot-and-mouth disease. In: [Dodet, B. and M. Vicari (eds)], Foot-and-Mouth Disease: Control Strategies. E´ditions scientifiques et me´dicales Elsevier SAS, France. pp. 173-180
  9. Donaldson, A.I., Gibson, C.F., Oliver, R., Hamblin, C. and Kitching, R.P. (1987). Infection of cattle by airborne foot-and-mouth disease virus: minimal doses with O1 and SAT 2 strains. Res. Vet. Sci., 43: 339-346.
  10. Dufour, B. and Hendrikx, P. (2009). Epidemiological Surveillance in Animal Health, 2nd edn. CIRAD, FAO, OIE, AEEMA. Paris, France.
  11. Dunn, C.S. and Donaldson, A.I. (1997). Natural adaption to pigs of a Taiwanese isolate of foot-and-mouth disease virus. Vet. Rec., 141: 174-175.
  12. Geering, W.A. and Lubroth, J. (2002). Preparation of foot-and-mouth disease contingency plans. FAO Animal Health Manual No. 16. ISSN 1020-5187.
  13. Giridharan, P., Hemadri, D., Tosh, C., Sanyal, A. and Bandyopadhyay, S.K. (2005). Development and evaluation of a multiplex PCR for differentiation of foot-and-mouth disease virus strains native to India. J. Virol. Methods., 126: 1-11. 
  14. Gloster, J., Sellers, R.F. and Donaldson, A.I. (1982). Long distance transport of foot-and-mouth disease virus over the sea. Vet. Rec., 110: 47-52.
  15. Hemadri, D., Tosh, C., Sanyal, A. and Venkataramanana, R. (2002). Emergences of a new strain of type O foot-and-mouth disease virus: its phylogenetic and evolutionary relationship with PanAsia pandemic strain. Virus Genes., 25: 23-34.
  16. House, C. and House, J.A. (1989). Evaluation of techniques to demonstrate foot-and-mouth disease virus in bovine tongue epithelium: comparison of the sensitivity of cattle, mice, primary cell cultures, cryopreserved cell cultures and established cell lines. Vet. Microbiol., 20: 99-109.
  17. Kitching, R.P., Hutber, A.M. and Thrusfield, M.V. (2005). A review of foot-and-mouth disease with special consideration for the clinical and epidemiological factors relevant to predictive modelling of the disease. Vet. J., 169: 197-209.
  18. Knowles, N.J. and Samuel, A.R. (1995). Polymerase chain reaction amplification and cycle sequencing of the 1D (VP1) gene of foot-    and-mouth disease viruses. Report of the Session of the Research Group of the Standing Technical Committee of European Community for Control of FMD (FAO), Vienna Austria September 1994, 45-53.
  19. Knowles, N.J., Samuel, A.R., Davies, P.R., Midgley, R.J. and Valarcher, J.F. (2005). Pandemic strain of foot-and-mouth disease virus serotype O. Emerg. Infect. Dis., 11: 1887-1893.
  20. Konig, G.A., Palma, E.L., Maradei, E. and Piccone, M.E. (2007). Molecular epidemiology of foot-and-mouth disease virus types A and O isolated in Argentina during the 2000-2002 epizootic. Vet. Microbiol., 124: 1-15.
  21. Lee, S.H., Jong, M.H., Huang, T.S., Lin, Y.L., Wong, M.L., Liu C.I. and Chang, T.J. (2009). Pathology and viral distributions of the porcinophilic foot-and-mouth disease virus strain (O/Taiwan/97) in experimentally infected pigs. Transbound. Emerg. Dis., 56: 189-201.
  22. Leon, E.A. (2012). Foot-and-mouth disease in pigs: current epidemiological situation and control methods. Transbound. Emerg. Dis., 59: 36-49. 
  23. Lubroth, J., Rodriguez, L. and Dekker, A. (2006). Vesicular diseases. In: Straw, B.E., J.J. Zimmerman, S. D’Allaire and D.J. Taylor (eds), Diseases of Swine, 9th edn. pp. Blackwell Publishing Professional, Ames, Iowa, USA. 517-536.
  24. Mikkelsen, T., Alexandersen, S., Astrup, P., Champion, H.J., Donaldson, A.I., Dunkerley, F.N., Gloster, J., Sørensen, J.H. and Thykier-    Nielsen, S. (2003). Investigation of airborne foot-and-mouth disease virus transmission during low-wind conditions in the early phase of the UK 2001 epidemic. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 3: 2101-2110.
  25. Mohapatra, J.K., Pandey, L.K., Sanyal, A. and Pattnaik, B. (2011). Recombinant non-structural polyprotein 3AB-based serodiagnostic strategy for FMD surveillance in bovines irrespective of vaccination. J. Virol. Methods., 177: 184-192.
  26. Nampanya, S., Richards, J., Khounsy, S., Inthavong, P., Yang, M., Rast, L. and Windsor, P.A. (2013). Investigation of foot and mouth disease hotspots in northern Lao PDR. Transbound. Emerg. Dis., 60: 315-329.
  27. Orsel, K., Bouma, A., Dekker, A., Stegeman, J.A. and de Jong, M.C.M. (2009). Foot and mouth disease virus transmission during the incubation period of the disease in piglets, lambs, calves, and dairy cows. Prev. Vet. Med., 88: 158-163.
  28. Paton, D.J., Sumption, K.J. and Charleston, B. (2009). Options for control of foot-and-mouth disease: knowledge, capability and policy. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B., 364: 2657-2667.
  29. Quan, M., Murphy, C.M., Zhang, Z. and Alexandersen, S. (2004). Determinants of early foot-and-mouth disease virus dynamics in pigs. J. Comp. Path., 131: 294-307.
  30. Ranabijuli, S., Mohapatra, J.K., Pandey, L.K., Rout, M., Sanyal, A., Dash, B.B., Sarangi, L.N., Panda, H.K. and Pattnaik, B. (2010). Serological evidence of foot and mouth disease infection in randomly surveyed goat population of Orissa, India. Transbound. Emerg. Dis., 57: 448-454.
  31. Rovid Spickler, A., Roth, J.A., Gaylon, J. and Lofstedt, J. (2010). Emerging and Exotic Diseases of Animals, 4th edn. Iowa State University, Iowa.
  32. Shieh, H.K. (1997). The FMD situation in Taiwan: short communication. J. Chin. Soc. Vet. Sci., 23: 395-402.
  33. Shin, J.H., Sohn, H.J., Choi, H.S., Kwon, B.J., Ko, Y.J., An, D.J., Cha, S.H., Park, J.H., Jeong, W.S., Park, J.Y., Choi, C.U., Kweon, C.H., Song, J.Y., Kim, J.Y., An, S.H., Kim, S.J. and Joo, Y.S. (2003). Molecular epidemiological investigation of foot-and-    mouth disease virus in Korea in 2000. J. Vet. Med. Sci., 65: 9-16.
  34. Sobrino, F., Saiz, M., Jimenez-Clavero, M.A., Nunez, J.I., Rosas, M.F., Baranowski, E. and Ley, V. (2001). Foot-and-mouth disease virus: a long known virus, but a current threat. Vet. Res., 32: 1-30.
  35. Sorensen, J.H., Mackay, D.K., Jensen, C.O. and Donaldson, A.I. (2000). An integrated model to predict the atmospheric spread of foot-and-mouth disease virus, Epidemiol. Infect., 124: 577-590.
  36. Stenfeldt, C., Pacheco, J.M., Smoliga, G.R., Bishop, E., Pauszek, S.J., Hartwig, E.J., Rodriguez, L.L. and Arzt, J. (2016). Detection of foot-and-mouth disease virus RNA and capsid protein in lymphoid tissues of convalescent pigs does not indicate existence of a carrier state. Transbound. Emerg. Dis., 63: 152-164.
  37. Subramaniam, S., Pattnaik, B., Sanyal, A., Mohapatra, J.K., Pawar, S.S., Sharma, G.K., Das, B. and Dash, B.B. (2012). Status of foot-    and-mouth disease in India. Transbound. Emerg. Dis., 60: 197-203.
  38. Sugiura, K., Ogura, H., Ito, K., Ishikawa, K., Hoshino, K. and Sakamoto, K. (2001). Eradication of foot and mouth disease in Japan. Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int. Epiz., 20: 701-713.
  39. Sutmoller, P., Barteling, S.S., Casas Olascoaga, R. and Sumption, K.J. (2003). Control and eradication of foot-and-mouth disease. Virus Res., 91: 101-144.
  40. Tamura, K., Stecher, G., Peterson, D., Filipski, A. and Kumar, S. (2013). MEGA6: Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis Version 6.0. Mol. Biol. Evol., 30: 2725-2729.
  41. Thompson, J.D., Higgins, D.G. and Gibson, T.J. (1994). CLUSTAL W improving the sensitivity of progressive multiple sequence alignment through sequence weighting, position-specific gap penalties and weightmatrix choice. Nucleic Acids Res., 22: 4673-4680. 
  42. Thurmond, M.C. (2003). Conceptual foundations for infectious disease surveillance. J. Vet. Diagn. Invest., 15: 501-514.
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    Research Article

    volume 52 issue 5 (may 2018) : 786-792,   Doi: 10.18805/ijar.B-3071

    Investigation of foot-and mouth disease outbreak in a pig farm at Kollam district of Kerala, India 
     

    M
    M. Rout
    S
    S. Subramaniam
    J
    J.K. Mohapatra
    B
    B.B. Dash
    B
    B. Pattnaik
    1ICAR-Project Directorate on Foot and Mouth Disease, Mukteswar - 263 138, Nainital, India
    Cite article:- Rout M., Subramaniam S., Mohapatra J.K., Dash B.B., Pattnaik B. (2017). Investigation of foot-and mouth disease outbreak in a pig farm at Kollam district of Kerala, India. Indian Journal of Animal Research. 52(5): 786-792. doi: 10.18805/ijar.B-3071.

    ABSTRACT

    The present paper describes the investigation of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) outbreak in a private pig farm at Kotty in Kollam district of Kerala during October 2013. During the clinical phase, severe vesicular lesions on snout and skin around the coronary bands were observed in pigs. A total of 48 serum samples and 12 clinical samples (ruptured snout epithelia) were collected. All serum samples were subjected to indirect 3AB nonstructural protein (NSP) ELISA and liquid phase blocking (LPB) ELISA. In 3AB NSP ELISA, all serum samples were found positive for NSP antibodies indicating infection. In LPB ELISA, 42 of 48 (87.5%) pigs were found to have protective log10 antibody titre of ³1.8 against FMD virus serotypes O, A and Asia 1. All the clinical materials were found positive for serotype O in antigen detection ELISA as well as in multiplex reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (mRT-PCR). In VP1 region-based phylogenetic analysis, the serotype O isolates causing the outbreak were found to conglomerate within Ind2001 lineage. Pigs infected with FMD may pose rigorous threat to other susceptible domestic livestock as they exhale enormous quantity of virus. As a consequence, they should be included under prophylactic vaccination and surveillance programmes ongoing in the country.

    REFERENCES

    1. Alexandersen, S., Quan, M., Murphy, C., Knight, J. and Zhang, Z. (2003). Studies of quantitative parameters of virus excretion and transmission in pigs and cattle experimentally infected with foot-and-mouth disease virus. J. Comp. Path., 129: 268-282.
    2. Bhattacharya, S., Pattnaik, B. and Venkataramanan, R. (1996). Development and application of sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for type identification of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus in direct field materials. Indian J. Anim. Sci., 66: 1-9. 
    3. Chang, T.C., Tsai, C.C., Chang, G.N., Kuo, M. and Chung, W.B. (1997). An outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease in pigs in southern Taiwan. J. Chin. Soc. Vet. Sci., 23: 269-273.
    4. Charleston, B., Bankowski, B.M., Gubbins, S., Chase-Topping, M.E., Schley, D., Howey, R., Barnett, P.V., Gibson, D., Juleff, N.D. and Woolhouse, M.E. (2011). Relationship between clinical signs and transmission of an infectious disease and the implications for control. Science., 332: 726-729.
    5. Domingo, E., Escarmis, C., Baranowski, E., Ruiz-Jarabo, C.M., Carrillo, E., Nunez, J.I. and Sobrino, F. (2003). Evolution of foot-and-    mouth disease virus. Virus Res., 91: 47-63.
    6. Donaldson, A.I. (1987). Foot-and-mouth disease: the principal features. Irish Vet. J., 41: 325-327.
    7. Donaldson, A.I. (1999). Airborne spread of foot-and-mouth disease. Microbiol. Today., 118: 118-119.
    8. Donaldson, A.I. and Alexandersen, S. (2003). The virological determinants of the epidemiology of foot-and-mouth disease. In: [Dodet, B. and M. Vicari (eds)], Foot-and-Mouth Disease: Control Strategies. E´ditions scientifiques et me´dicales Elsevier SAS, France. pp. 173-180
    9. Donaldson, A.I., Gibson, C.F., Oliver, R., Hamblin, C. and Kitching, R.P. (1987). Infection of cattle by airborne foot-and-mouth disease virus: minimal doses with O1 and SAT 2 strains. Res. Vet. Sci., 43: 339-346.
    10. Dufour, B. and Hendrikx, P. (2009). Epidemiological Surveillance in Animal Health, 2nd edn. CIRAD, FAO, OIE, AEEMA. Paris, France.
    11. Dunn, C.S. and Donaldson, A.I. (1997). Natural adaption to pigs of a Taiwanese isolate of foot-and-mouth disease virus. Vet. Rec., 141: 174-175.
    12. Geering, W.A. and Lubroth, J. (2002). Preparation of foot-and-mouth disease contingency plans. FAO Animal Health Manual No. 16. ISSN 1020-5187.
    13. Giridharan, P., Hemadri, D., Tosh, C., Sanyal, A. and Bandyopadhyay, S.K. (2005). Development and evaluation of a multiplex PCR for differentiation of foot-and-mouth disease virus strains native to India. J. Virol. Methods., 126: 1-11. 
    14. Gloster, J., Sellers, R.F. and Donaldson, A.I. (1982). Long distance transport of foot-and-mouth disease virus over the sea. Vet. Rec., 110: 47-52.
    15. Hemadri, D., Tosh, C., Sanyal, A. and Venkataramanana, R. (2002). Emergences of a new strain of type O foot-and-mouth disease virus: its phylogenetic and evolutionary relationship with PanAsia pandemic strain. Virus Genes., 25: 23-34.
    16. House, C. and House, J.A. (1989). Evaluation of techniques to demonstrate foot-and-mouth disease virus in bovine tongue epithelium: comparison of the sensitivity of cattle, mice, primary cell cultures, cryopreserved cell cultures and established cell lines. Vet. Microbiol., 20: 99-109.
    17. Kitching, R.P., Hutber, A.M. and Thrusfield, M.V. (2005). A review of foot-and-mouth disease with special consideration for the clinical and epidemiological factors relevant to predictive modelling of the disease. Vet. J., 169: 197-209.
    18. Knowles, N.J. and Samuel, A.R. (1995). Polymerase chain reaction amplification and cycle sequencing of the 1D (VP1) gene of foot-    and-mouth disease viruses. Report of the Session of the Research Group of the Standing Technical Committee of European Community for Control of FMD (FAO), Vienna Austria September 1994, 45-53.
    19. Knowles, N.J., Samuel, A.R., Davies, P.R., Midgley, R.J. and Valarcher, J.F. (2005). Pandemic strain of foot-and-mouth disease virus serotype O. Emerg. Infect. Dis., 11: 1887-1893.
    20. Konig, G.A., Palma, E.L., Maradei, E. and Piccone, M.E. (2007). Molecular epidemiology of foot-and-mouth disease virus types A and O isolated in Argentina during the 2000-2002 epizootic. Vet. Microbiol., 124: 1-15.
    21. Lee, S.H., Jong, M.H., Huang, T.S., Lin, Y.L., Wong, M.L., Liu C.I. and Chang, T.J. (2009). Pathology and viral distributions of the porcinophilic foot-and-mouth disease virus strain (O/Taiwan/97) in experimentally infected pigs. Transbound. Emerg. Dis., 56: 189-201.
    22. Leon, E.A. (2012). Foot-and-mouth disease in pigs: current epidemiological situation and control methods. Transbound. Emerg. Dis., 59: 36-49. 
    23. Lubroth, J., Rodriguez, L. and Dekker, A. (2006). Vesicular diseases. In: Straw, B.E., J.J. Zimmerman, S. D’Allaire and D.J. Taylor (eds), Diseases of Swine, 9th edn. pp. Blackwell Publishing Professional, Ames, Iowa, USA. 517-536.
    24. Mikkelsen, T., Alexandersen, S., Astrup, P., Champion, H.J., Donaldson, A.I., Dunkerley, F.N., Gloster, J., Sørensen, J.H. and Thykier-    Nielsen, S. (2003). Investigation of airborne foot-and-mouth disease virus transmission during low-wind conditions in the early phase of the UK 2001 epidemic. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 3: 2101-2110.
    25. Mohapatra, J.K., Pandey, L.K., Sanyal, A. and Pattnaik, B. (2011). Recombinant non-structural polyprotein 3AB-based serodiagnostic strategy for FMD surveillance in bovines irrespective of vaccination. J. Virol. Methods., 177: 184-192.
    26. Nampanya, S., Richards, J., Khounsy, S., Inthavong, P., Yang, M., Rast, L. and Windsor, P.A. (2013). Investigation of foot and mouth disease hotspots in northern Lao PDR. Transbound. Emerg. Dis., 60: 315-329.
    27. Orsel, K., Bouma, A., Dekker, A., Stegeman, J.A. and de Jong, M.C.M. (2009). Foot and mouth disease virus transmission during the incubation period of the disease in piglets, lambs, calves, and dairy cows. Prev. Vet. Med., 88: 158-163.
    28. Paton, D.J., Sumption, K.J. and Charleston, B. (2009). Options for control of foot-and-mouth disease: knowledge, capability and policy. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B., 364: 2657-2667.
    29. Quan, M., Murphy, C.M., Zhang, Z. and Alexandersen, S. (2004). Determinants of early foot-and-mouth disease virus dynamics in pigs. J. Comp. Path., 131: 294-307.
    30. Ranabijuli, S., Mohapatra, J.K., Pandey, L.K., Rout, M., Sanyal, A., Dash, B.B., Sarangi, L.N., Panda, H.K. and Pattnaik, B. (2010). Serological evidence of foot and mouth disease infection in randomly surveyed goat population of Orissa, India. Transbound. Emerg. Dis., 57: 448-454.
    31. Rovid Spickler, A., Roth, J.A., Gaylon, J. and Lofstedt, J. (2010). Emerging and Exotic Diseases of Animals, 4th edn. Iowa State University, Iowa.
    32. Shieh, H.K. (1997). The FMD situation in Taiwan: short communication. J. Chin. Soc. Vet. Sci., 23: 395-402.
    33. Shin, J.H., Sohn, H.J., Choi, H.S., Kwon, B.J., Ko, Y.J., An, D.J., Cha, S.H., Park, J.H., Jeong, W.S., Park, J.Y., Choi, C.U., Kweon, C.H., Song, J.Y., Kim, J.Y., An, S.H., Kim, S.J. and Joo, Y.S. (2003). Molecular epidemiological investigation of foot-and-    mouth disease virus in Korea in 2000. J. Vet. Med. Sci., 65: 9-16.
    34. Sobrino, F., Saiz, M., Jimenez-Clavero, M.A., Nunez, J.I., Rosas, M.F., Baranowski, E. and Ley, V. (2001). Foot-and-mouth disease virus: a long known virus, but a current threat. Vet. Res., 32: 1-30.
    35. Sorensen, J.H., Mackay, D.K., Jensen, C.O. and Donaldson, A.I. (2000). An integrated model to predict the atmospheric spread of foot-and-mouth disease virus, Epidemiol. Infect., 124: 577-590.
    36. Stenfeldt, C., Pacheco, J.M., Smoliga, G.R., Bishop, E., Pauszek, S.J., Hartwig, E.J., Rodriguez, L.L. and Arzt, J. (2016). Detection of foot-and-mouth disease virus RNA and capsid protein in lymphoid tissues of convalescent pigs does not indicate existence of a carrier state. Transbound. Emerg. Dis., 63: 152-164.
    37. Subramaniam, S., Pattnaik, B., Sanyal, A., Mohapatra, J.K., Pawar, S.S., Sharma, G.K., Das, B. and Dash, B.B. (2012). Status of foot-    and-mouth disease in India. Transbound. Emerg. Dis., 60: 197-203.
    38. Sugiura, K., Ogura, H., Ito, K., Ishikawa, K., Hoshino, K. and Sakamoto, K. (2001). Eradication of foot and mouth disease in Japan. Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int. Epiz., 20: 701-713.
    39. Sutmoller, P., Barteling, S.S., Casas Olascoaga, R. and Sumption, K.J. (2003). Control and eradication of foot-and-mouth disease. Virus Res., 91: 101-144.
    40. Tamura, K., Stecher, G., Peterson, D., Filipski, A. and Kumar, S. (2013). MEGA6: Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis Version 6.0. Mol. Biol. Evol., 30: 2725-2729.
    41. Thompson, J.D., Higgins, D.G. and Gibson, T.J. (1994). CLUSTAL W improving the sensitivity of progressive multiple sequence alignment through sequence weighting, position-specific gap penalties and weightmatrix choice. Nucleic Acids Res., 22: 4673-4680. 
    42. Thurmond, M.C. (2003). Conceptual foundations for infectious disease surveillance. J. Vet. Diagn. Invest., 15: 501-514.
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