Population growth, urbanization and climate change have emerged as significant factors influencing land utilization for both crop and forage production in Ethiopia (
Hamza and Lyela, 2012). By 2050, the number of people in Africa alone is expected to nearly quadruple to 2 billion
(Thornton et al., 2007). Moreover, the
IPCC’s (2007) Fourth Assessment Report predicts an increase in average global surface temperature of 1.8 to 4.0°C between present and 2100, with the exact range relying heavily on the amount of fossil fuels used between now and then and the models used to predict it. As a result, ensuring the provision of sufficient food products either from livestock or crop has become one of the challenges confronting the rapidly expanding human populace. This challenge is particularly acute in African nations such as Ethiopia, where the issue has been further compounded by natural and man-made disasters (
Abera, 2021).
Notably, the livestock and crop sectors encounter challenges, including the scarcity of forage and feed, communal land ownership, limited access to land and water resources, inadequate infrastructure and environmental deterioration
(Ates et al., 2018). Furthermore, conventional agricultural practices are known to contribute to soil degradation due to the intensive nature of the tillage methods employed (
Kumar et al., 2018). Hence, sustainable farming methods are being promoted by developing nations all over the world in order to tackling socioeconomic and environmental challenges. Consequently, it is needed to establish an efficient approach to resource utilization in order to cater to the dietary requirements of both livestock and humans. Among the available options, integrated livestock crop farming (ILCF) holds tremendous promise, particularly for marginalized and small-scale farmers
(Mukhlis et al., 2018).
The agricultural system that combines both crop and livestock production is called ILCF, in which the by-product of one system becomes the input for another (
Reddy, 2016). It is based on the concept that “there is no waste” and “waste is only a misplaced resource that can become a valuable material for another product (
Saikat Roy and Alam Ansari, 2017). Similarly, it aims to optimize the use of agricultural waste by extending the biological cycle. Each cycle chain produces a new product that has high economic value, so it can optimize the empowerment and use of marginal land
(Mukhlis et al., 2018). Moreover, ILCF can be productive and sustainable
(Sekaran et al., 2021) and a number of sustainability issues have been highlighted in specialized crop systems,
e.g., soil salinity, pests (including pest resistance) and soil health
(Entz et al., 2002).
In the future, farming systems will face many challenges due to monoculture and diversification, along with different animal combinations, can help assure successful and productive agriculture
(Tanaka et al., 2008). The development of agriculture aims to optimize the use of natural resources and advanced technology that is inexpensive, simple and easily implemented in a sustainable manner. The core concept of sustainability is the belief that social, economic and environmental objectives should be complementary and interdependent in the development process
(Mukhlis et al., 2018). The issue of both nutrition and food security is considered one of the most critical in countries like Ethiopia. Hence, the products obtained from the integration diversified the farmers’ produce with protein-rich commodities, which gear towards nutritional security on a sustainable basis. Moreover, the system is cost-effective and efficient enough to make money at the small-scale farmer level on a relatively small plot of land
(Tugie et al., 2017).
African mixed crop-livestock systems must adapt to the changing environment in order to increase productivity and safeguard people’s way of life
(Descheemaeker et al., 2016). A vital role for ICLF in providing food security and minimizing the consequences of climate change in Ethiopia is feasible. Utilizing resources effectively and building a resilient and sustainable agricultural system are the goals of this method, which integrates the production of crops and livestock into a single farming system. However, there are still several review gaps and justifications that need to be addressed for its successful implementation. Moreover, the adoption of integrated systems of agricultural production involving lower inputs can alleviate these economic and ecological problems (
Edwards, 1987). To improve rural livelihood and food security in smallholder crop-livestock farming systems, concurrent work is required to address issues regarding efficiency of production, risk within systems and the development of whole value chain systems
(Ates et al., 2018).
Ethiopia is endowed with a diversified agroecology that is suitable for the production of different livestock and crops. However, the country confronts many challenges on the road to sustainable agriculture, especially when it comes to integrating livestock and crops. For instance, according to
Germer et al. (2023) in sub-Sahasan African countries including Ethiopia, the livestock is under increasing pressure to define its role in jointly addressing food security and climate change. Moreover, agricultural technologies that improve productivity and are climate smart have been highlighted as solutions to the problems of food and nutrition insecurity rash
(Zegeye et al., 2022) . If the concept of ILCF is implemented, it will enable all the benefits of the integrated farming system to be realized. While Asian countries like India have successfully implemented such integrated farming systems, Ethiopia lacks a comprehensive understanding of implementing the system. For instance,
Herrero (2012) indicated that crop and mixed crop-livestock systems are dominant, tend to be heavily interlinked and account for the bulk of meat and milk production in Asia.
Ethiopia aspires to adopt and use these strategies to address its own agricultural difficulties and achieve sustainable development by learning the approaches and lessons drawn from India’s practices since the country has similar agroecological situations and farming system. Therefore, there is a need to review and adapt India’s lessons for sustainable agriculture to develop an effective and context-specific integrated livestock-crop farming model in Ethiopia. The aim of this review was to explore the different methods of integrated livestock crop farming that have been implemented in India and how they can be used in Ethiopia. In addition, we will examine the socioeconomic and environmental elements that have helped make these techniques successful in India. We intend to gain a thorough grasp of the possible advantages, difficulties and lessons that may be learned from India’s experiences by examining the techniques of integrated livestock crop farming from India to Ethiopia. This information will be useful not only for Ethiopia but also for the development of integrated farming techniques in other nations that are dealing with similar agricultural difficulties.
Review methods
The review was conducted both in India and Ethiopia and the information was gathered from several sources on the subject of integrated livestock crop farming practices. The sources of information gathered for the text under review were discovered via a variety of internet publications that had been published. The review method therefore took into account all of the eligible journal papers, thesis works and reports published on the integration of livestock and crop farming both in India and Ethiopia. After carefully reviewing the research titles and abstracts, any material that did not meet the criteria for the study was screened and excluded.
The importance and advantages of integrating livestock and crop farming
Integration of livestock and crop production promotes the mutually beneficial link between both activities. It entails mixing the farming of crops with the raising of animals on the same farm, with each activity gaining from the presence of the other. Due to the multiple advantages and benefits this discipline offers, it has grown in popularity. By bringing together resources such as land, labor, management, experts, the use of products and byproducts and infrastructures for the production of different commodities, integrated livestock agricultural systems increase productivity and benefit economies
(Peterson et al., 2020). Soni et al. (2014) reported that ILCF boosts productivity per unit area, soil fertility and soil physical structure. Utilizing animal waste and agricultural residues reduces the need for external inputs, including fertilizers, agrochemicals, feeds and energy.
Lemaire et al., (2014) concluded that the integration of crops and livestock to boost diversity within agricultural systems can be a successful method to raise agricultural output with less damaging environmental effects. As a result, it would concurrently accomplish numerous related and overlapping sustainable development goals (SDGs), such as goals number 2 (zero hunger), number 3 (good health and wellbeing), number 6 (clean water and sanitation), number 13 (climate action) and number 15 (life on land). Integrating livestock production within an agricultural system boosts farm income and profitability when compared to a unitary one. Furthermore, it is carried out at a low cost of production, raising farmers’ net income without compromising productivity issues
(Dasgupta et al., 2015). A farming business can generate a sizable amount of income by using an integrated crop and animal system
(Sekaran et al., 2021).
Understanding the Ethiopian integrated livestock crop farming conditions
Overview of Ethiopia’s integrated livestock crop farming
Ethiopia is well known for having a variety of climates and agroecological zones, which make it suited for raising a variety of crops and livestock. A large majority of the population works in farming, which contributes to the nation’s reliance on agriculture. Typical interactions between these elements include the use of cultivated forages and crop residues as feed, the use of animal manure as organic fertilizer, the cultivation of land using animal draught power, financial transactions between crop and livestock enterprises, land-use conversions from rangelands to cropland and the dependence of animal husbandry and rangeland on one another
(Descheemaeker et al., 2016). The system of integrated livestock crop farming works on the principle of synergy, where both the crop and livestock components complement and support each other to achieve sustainable agricultural production.
Diversified farms continue to be a source of income, a risk management technique and a way of life for smallholders in Ethiopia
(Mekuria et al., 2018). The two subsystems that make up the larger mixed crop-livestock system are crop production and animal husbandry. One of the key features of integrated livestock crop farming in Ethiopia is the utilization of waste and by-products as inputs for other farming types. Crops are grown primarily to meet the food and feed requirements of livestock. Animal manure is also used as fertilizer for crop cultivation, reducing the need for external chemical inputs and improving soil fertility. Previous research findings indicated that integrated livestock-crop farming has the potential to greatly benefit the agricultural sector. However, little research has been conducted so far related to integrated livestock crop farming in Ethiopia. In general, some of the works conducted under Ethiopian conditions are indicated in Table 1. As indicated in Table 2, implementing integrated livestock crop farming in different types fetches a better economic return. It is argued that the net profit of integrated farming is better than that of conventional agriculture. It is argued that the net profit of integrated farming with conventional agriculture for a small-scale farm. During third year of integrated farming system records higher net returns (Rs. 2,45,398) with 4.63 benefit cost ratio (B:C ratio) than second year (Rs.1,29,442 net returns with 3.34 B:C ratio) and first year (Rs.76968 net returns with 2.53 B:C ratio) respectively
(Desai et al., 2013).
The challenges of Ethiopia’s integrated livestock crop farming
Ethiopian integrated livestock-crop farming presents a complicated set of challenges that have an impact on agricultural sustainability. To fully comprehend and address these challenges, there haven’t been many research studies done. However, there are challenges preventing Ethiopia’s integrated livestock crop farming from developing to its full potential. These challenges cover a wide range of issues, including scarce resources, infrastructure and climate change. According to
Mohammed (2016), land scarcity, farmers’ familiarity with local traditional farming methods, issues with accessibility and availability of improved vegetable seed, a lack of fingerling dissemination centers for livestock and a lack of training and research on enhancing farmers’ indigenous knowledge are the main obstacles to the use of integrated livestock crop farming. As efforts are made to create integrated crop-livestock production systems, agroecological, technical, social, demographic and environmental variables must be properly taken into account.
Overview of integrated livestock-crop farming in India
In India, integrated livestock-crop farming has gained significant attention due to its potential to increase food production, improve rural livelihoods and mitigate environmental challenges. For instance, horticultural and vegetable crops provide energy and nutritional security
(Manjunatha et al., 2014). The integration of crops and livestock also offers numerous benefits, including nutrient recycling, efficient resource utilization and diversified income streams. One of the key features of integrated livestock-crop farming in India is the close link between crop cultivation and livestock rearing. Furthermore, it improves soil fertility, reduces waste and increases the productivity of both. In an integrated system, animal waste acts as a natural fertilizer for crops, while the crops provide food for the animals. The integrated farming system is a complex matrix of soil, water, plants, animals and the environment, enabling more profitable and quality food production. There are different research findings that have been conducted so far in India that indicate the economic, nutritional and ecological benefits of integrated livestock crop farming compared to the traditional type of farming.
Types of livestock and crop based agricultural system practiced in India
India uses a range of livestock and crop-based agricultural systems that are essential for maintaining the rural economy, ensuring food security and satisfying the many agricultural needs of the nation. For instance, crop and animal integration on the same farms aids smallholder farmers in diversifying their sources of income and creating jobs in India. Livestock and crops work well together because they are mutually beneficial
(Kochewad et al., 2017). There are various types of integrated systems practiced in India, such as livestock, crop, fish farming systems that can be implemented by including fish in the livestock and crop farming system, growing the fish in the fish pond with the assistance of available animal manure and rearing the fish without any additional feed
(Kochewad et al., 2017; Mitra et al., 2018).
Increased income for farmers as well as improved nutritional security would result from the integration of backyard poultry production with crop and livestock cultivation (
Kochewad et al., 2017). For marginal farmers in Chhattisgarh’s rainfed regions,
Ramrao et al., (2006) studied crop-livestock integrated farming systems in order to identify a sustainable mixed farming model that is economically viable and integrates various components like crops, livestock, poultry and ducks on a 1.5-acre land holding. According to
Kochewad et al. (2017), small ruminants are a key component of the economy of the nation’s small, marginal and landless farmers in the small ruminant, crop, horticulture-based farming system. The combination of these businesses can boost overall output while preserving ecological harmony and long-term economic viability. Similarly, fish and poultry farming systems can be combined to reduce the expense of feeds and fertilizers for fish farming
(Sekhar et al., 2014). More research was also conducted in India by mixing livestock, crop horticulture, fish and poultry
(Goverdhan et al., 2018; Rashtrarakshak et al., 2016).
Role of ILCF on the food security
In order to address the problems of hunger and poverty, many countries have made food security their top priority (
Danso-Abbeam et al., 2021). In the context of developing nations, one of the strategic challenges is food security
(Mukhlis et al., 2018). It is suggested that each region is required to optimize the use of its land resources in order to maintain the sustainability of production and support the food security program in the future
(Descheemaeker et al., 2016). Accordingly,
Paramesh et al. (2022) the expanding of Indian population’s, future food security and nutrition, integrated livestock crop systems are absolutely essential. Consequently, the well-integrated complementary ILCF can partially or completely meet the dietary needs of farm households on a small parcel of land. As these systems offer opportunities to use land and time for growing short-duration vegetable crops, pulses and livestock feed, they contribute to providing the majority of the basic foods consumed by many millions of small and marginal farmers in India.
The integrated farming system method not only meets household demands but also improves the diets of both people and livestock for nutritional security in Odisha State, India
(Dash et al., 2015). The Hamshire Doom Pig cross was reported to have the highest live weight among the pigs, with a total meat production of 2047 kg integrated with fish farming in the treatment pond of size 0.50 ha. Grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) showed the highest fish growth in the fish-to-pig integration
(Bhagawati et al., 2020). The production of eggs, meat and milk ensures the farmers’ year-round nutritional security and income generation due to the integration of various livestock components with crops
(Kochewad et al., 2017).
Role of ILCF on the income
The integrated farming system combines various farming methods, including vermicomposting, dairy farming, goat rearing, sheep rearing, banana farming and sheep rearing, with agriculture and dairy farming, which are complementary to one another and increase farmers’ socioeconomic status
(Basavarajappa et al., 2015). The ILCF holds considerable promise for increasing profitability through lower manufacturing costs and/or increased productivity
(Rathore et al., 2019). Fish and pig integration boosts production and offers extra money for small-scale farmers
(Bhagawati et al., 2020). Dasgupta et al. (2015) indicated that to reduce production costs and boost farmers’ net revenue while maintaining productivity concerns.
Productivity of ILCF
The productivity of ILCF can vary based on a number of factors, including the types of crops and livestock being raised, the management techniques used and the environmental conditions. However, in general, ILCF systems have the potential to boost overall productivity and efficiency. For instance, from integrated agricultural system experiments in Sirupura, Karnataka, India, during the wet and dry seasons of 2003–2004 and 2005-2006,
Biradar et al. (2009) noted higher yields were achieved by combining crops with fish, poultry and goats than by using just standard rice. Comparing an integrated farming system to a standard rice-rice system, productivity increased by 26.3%. In a semi-arid climate in Jhansi,
Rathore et al. (2019) evaluated the fodder output of solitary Dichanthium and Dichanthium + aonla and found that Dichanthium + aonla produced 0.56 t ha
-1 more fodder than sole Dichanthium and 12.1 t/ha more fruit yield. In terms of rice grain equivalent yields, the integration of field crops, poultry, fish and horticulture crops (banana) had the maximum system productivity (14.90 t/ha). Along with increased output, the integrated agricultural system provides enough food for farm families, including fruits, vegetables (rajmash),
etc. Compared to cropping alone, this technique recorded 99.3% better productivity
(Sekhar et al., 2014). In general, some of the research works indicating the productivity of integrated livestock crop farming in India are indicated in Table 3.
Role of ILCF on climate resilience
Climate change will be seen as variations in atmospheric and climatic variables (rainfall, temperature and CO
2 concentration), as well as a variety of other variations and interactions
(Descheemaeker et al., 2016). Animal production and processing can increase agricultural productivity by increasing nutrients that improve soil fertility and lowering the need for artificial fertilizers, while crop leftovers can be used as animal feed
(Kumar et al., 2018). Due to the enhanced recycling capacity of ILCF, farmers rely on purchased inputs less frequently
(Paramesh et al., 2022). As a result of the greater variety of agricultural by-products, smallholder mixed farms may be less susceptible to climate change and crop failure. Due to enhanced carbon sequestration, the ILCF systems from Palampur, Johrat, Kalyani, Raipur and Telangana reported net negative emissions of GHGs. All of these ILCF systems have horticulture (perennial fruit crops) or boundary plantations with perennial trees. Moreover, ILCF plays a significant role in lowering atmospheric CO
2 concentrations. Woody perennials (trees and shrubs) are used to increase C storage, livestock are incorporated to supply manure and manure is applied to increase C storage in the soil. Woody perennials and animals can be integrated with arable crops to deliver nutrients to the crops through efficient resource recycling, reducing the demand for fertilizers and indirectly conserving fossil fuels
(Rathore et al., 2019).
Role of ILCF on ecological benefits
Livestock and crop wastes added as organic residues may also help the soil become healthier, which will increase productivity over a longer period of time. A great opportunity for preserving and enhancing biodiversity is provided by integrated farming systems. Instead of maximizing the performance of the system’s individual components, such systems place an emphasis on resource consumption optimization
(Soni et al., 2014). One system’s waste or byproduct is immediately incorporated into another system. It is anticipated that this business will increase output while lowering cultivation expenses and environmental damage. Fish culture plus dairy, fish culture plus poultry, dairy plus vermicompost, rice culture plus dairy plus mushrooms,
etc. Odisha State, India, (
Dash, 2015). The pig waste is composed of 1.36-2% nitrogen (N), 0.4% phosphorus (P) and 0.4% potash (K) and the total amount recycled in the experimental ponds was between 35.50 and 38.75 kg of dung or droppings
(Bhagawati et al., 2020).
Paramesh et al., (2022) showed that composting, mulching and residue assimilation help ILCF improve nutrient recycling, which gives them the ability to use less input from outside sources. The nutrient recycling in turn serves to boost soil microbial activity and soil quality indicators, including soil nitrogen availability. Through the use of diversified cropping systems and the incorporation of native animal breeds, the ILCF plays a significant role in the protection of biodiversity. Additionally, ILCF significantly contributed to the increase in soil organic carbon from 0.75 to 0.82%. According to
Biradar and Channabasavanna (2007), the nutritional status of soil NPK improved over time in the rice-fish poultry system (rice-rice) from 187 kg/ha to 262 kg/ha (40%), 29.3 kg/ha to 33.6 kg/ha (14.6%) and 503 kg/ha to 530 kg/ha (5.4%), respectively. Organic materials applied in bulk can improve soil texture, promote better absorption of moisture, reduce run-off and prevent crusting of the soil surface. Manure is also valuable in reversing the deterioration in soil structure in sodic soils, characterized by high contents of exchangeable sodium and low permeability
(Devendra et al., 1997).
Economic benefits of integrated livestock crop production
ILCF assists farmers in maximizing returns and revenue from several integrated components, raising their standard of living in the process. In addition to the farming system’s increased productivity, cheaper production costs and the recycling of agricultural byproducts’ byproducts also contributed to the greater returns
(Walia et al., 2016). The economic analysis of integrated livestock crop farming in India has been evaluated to make a clear comparison with the conventional one. In this regard, different research studies have been conducted and published. However, the overall outcome related to the economic benefits of the integrated system is that the system fetches a higher income than the conventional system. For instance, according to
Desai et al., (2013), the integrated farming system outperformed the conventional technique in terms of average net returns, with average net returns of Rs. 1,50,710 and a benefit cost ratio of 3.61 compared to Rs. 65,000 and 2.85, respectively. Similarly, the study conducted in Assam, India, indicated that the three treated ponds produced 8769.65 kg of fish in total, including 16.53 kg of chital fish. Fish generated 41.79% of the farm’s total gross income. The calculated percentage return on variable costs was 68.40%
(Bhagawati et al., 2020). According to
Biradar et al. (2009), compared to the standard rice-rice system, the integrated agricultural system approach demonstrated profitability increases of 32.3%.
Additionally, the ILCF had a greater benefit-cost ratio (1.97) than the conventional method (1.64). Due to their low cultivation costs, fish and goats have the highest benefit-to-cost ratios (both 2.75), respectively
(Biradar et al., 2009). The study conducted in Odisha, India, indicated that the farmer in case 1 had a gross income of Rs. 5,19,600 from 0.8 ha of pond-based farming, followed by Rs. 3,75,920 from 1.872 ha of crop-based farming and Rs. 1,50,300 from 0.8 ha of crop-based farming in cases 2 and 3
(Dash et al., 2015). The system’s economic study showed that crop integration with other livestock enhanced income compared to crop cultivation alone. With the highest net return (USD 2349/yr) and greater daily net return (USD 6.43/day), the crop integrated with fish, duck and goat was determined to be very profitable. In terms of net return and net return/day, the crop + fish + poultry system was rated as the second-best system, followed by the crop + fish + goat system.
Kochewad et al. (2017) point out that small and marginal farmers have the chance to increase their economic yield per unit area per unit time by using integrated farming systems based on livestock. By connecting the right components, waste materials are effectively recycled in this system. Reduce environmental contamination as a result. The integrated farming system’s recycling of goods, byproducts and waste is what makes the farming system sustainable. According to
Sahoo et al. (2012), small farm cottages (240 m
2), a general children’s play area (120 m
2) and a 4000 m
2 plot of land with a pond-based farming system were its distinguishing features. The financial study of the pond-based agricultural system showed that an investment of $299 yielded a gross income of $1073, with a benefit/cost ratio of 3.59. The pond-based farming system generated $775 in net income.
In the past,
Behera and France (2016) reported that in a farmer’s field about 0.4 ha at Bashathi village in the Bhadrak district of coastal Odisha during 2003-2005 with an investment of $299 resulted in net profits of $771 from enterprises like field and horticultural crops, fishery, dairy and agroforestry. Crop farming alone generated a net return of only Rs. 18,300 per year while a crop-livestock mixed farming generated about Rs. 58,456 per year
(Ramrao et al., 2005).
Net income and operational costs have all been investigated during the course of the three-year study period, both individually and systemically, according to
Sekhar et al. (2014). The system of field crops, poultry, fish and horticulture (bananas) was extremely cost-effective, with the highest net income (Rs. 29,102). This was primarily caused by the addition of the poultry component, which increased system profits by the greatest amount (Rs. 20910). Fish, bananas and apiaries had the highest benefit-cost ratio (1.96), followed by paddy, fish and horticulture (bananas) and field crops + poultry + fish + horticulture (bananas) (1.83). According to
Ramrao et al., (2006), the mixed farming model had a net revenue of ‘33076 a year compared to arable farming (crop farming) and included two bullocks, a cow, a buffalo, ten goats, ten chickens and ten ducks in addition to crop cultivation alone (7843 per year), with a cost-to-return ratio of 1.238 and 316 days of employment creation (Table 4).
Challenges of India integrated livestock crop farming
Even if, ILCF practiced widely in India there are some challenges influencing the farming system. Despite several advantages, farmers are unable to adopt the ILCF due to several constraints in different regions of the country. In general, these constraints can be classified into different categories like financial, biophysical, sociocultural, institutional, or policy
(Paramesh et al., 2022). Natural resource sustainability, the effects of climate change and the loss of productivity factors are some of the significant challenges, as is the trend of shrinking land holdings and declining per capita availability of land (
Behera and France, 2016).
Ramya et al., (2021) made the following arguments: lack of fair prices for farm products, long working hours, high input costs for starting various farm enterprises, a lack of marketing infrastructure and local middlemen’s exploitation and management of subsidiary enterprises like dairy, sheep and goat units; scarcity and high labor costs; improper access to knowledge and extension services; and changes in the monsoon that affect production levels. Natural resource management in terms of soil health and water conservation Less youth involvement in farming, Issues with wildlife nuisance, pests and diseases and cultural incompatibility in embracing livestock as a component in an integrated farming system.
Lessons learned from India’s integrated livestock-crop farming experience
India’s integrated farming systems, which combine crop and livestock production, have proven sustainable, environmentally friendly and beneficial for farmers. This approach provides multiple income sources, reduces dependency and enhances food security by producing both food grains and animal products, thereby increasing productivity and efficiency. Furthermore, waste from livestock and crops can boost soil fertility, boost crop yields and boost livestock output. Maintaining soil fertility, lowering chemical inputs and promoting sustainable agriculture are all benefits of including mixed farming systems. Livestock can provide protection from drought and crop failure, but integration systems enhance water retention and lessen the effects of climate change. Generally, India’s successful integrated farming practices can be beneficial for Ethiopia, where malnutrition and food insecurity are prevalent.
Moreover, India’s experience with integrated livestock crop farming can serve as a valuable reference for Ethiopian farmers facing similar challenges. By adopting these practices, farmers in Ethiopia can enhance their agricultural productivity, improve soil fertility, conserve natural resources and increase the resilience to climate change. Hence taking lesson from India on this and other aspects could help to improve the farming systemin different forms. As a result, Ethiopia’s specific context, including resources, climate and socio-economic factors, must be considered for effective implementation while adapting the lesson from India since the lessons can improve agricultural productivity and promote sustainable food systems.
Policy and research issues
It is important to note that the policy and regulatory framework should be tailored to the specific needs and conditions of each country or region. Local factors such as climate, farming practices and market demand should be considered when designing and implementing policies to promote integrated livestock crop farming. However, some common elements can be considered. For instance,
Ramya et al. (2021) argued that the policy decisions and actions of the government towards extension initiatives for establishing model farms and organizing awareness and training programs on integrating different farm enterprises may enable the farmers in that locality to obtain first-hand knowledge about various aspects of integrated farming systems and help them overcome the limitations of integrated farming systems. Increased integration between different farm household activities can create opportunities for research and development strategies, technological alternatives, vertical integration of market channels for different household activities simultaneously and unusual intensification that occurs traditionally in mixed crop-livestock production systems
(Amejo et al., 2019). Because of various constraints that smallholder farmers managing integrated crop-livestock production systems face, they have not been benefiting from research and development efforts. Thus, research directions and development interventions need to focus on improving the policy and institutional aspects to increase total farm productivity and household income through improved links to technologies and services and better links to markets. More research and policy instruments are needed to improve the efficiency of resource use in integrated farming systems
(Asrat et al., 2018). Singh et al. (2019) indicated that small agricultural firms using bankable IFS models require policy support in the form of subsidies and credits. There is also a need to develop facilities for marketing, infrastructure, value addition and warehousing at the regional level.
