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Current IssueEditorial BoardOnline First ArticlesArchive

Reviewer Article

volume 39 issue 1 (march 2018) : 48-54,   Doi: 10.18805/ag.R-1770

Trichoderma as an efficacious bioagent for combating biotic and abiotic stresses of wheat-A review

O
O.P. Gangwar
A
Akanksha P.K. Singh
1ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research, Regional Station, Flowerdale, Shimla-171 002, Himachal Pradesh, India.
Cite article:- Gangwar O.P., Singh P.K. Akanksha (2018). Trichoderma as an efficacious bioagent for combating biotic and abiotic stresses of wheat-A review. Agricultural Reviews. 39(1): 48-54. doi: 10.18805/ag.R-1770.

ABSTRACT

Several environmental stresses are the major hindrances in achieving the attainable yield in wheat crop. The actual losses due to biotic stresses is estimated in the range of 26-29%, however, abiotic stresses have more adverse effects on crop yield and are responsible for about 70% of yield reduction worldwide. Agrochemicals are widely considered as an effective management strategy for wheat crop diseases and insect pests but they adversely affect the human and animal health due to accumulation of chemical residues in the soil, plant tissues and grains. Hence, there is a need for alternate management strategies to protect crop plants against various stresses. Species of the genus Trichoderma are economically important as biocontrol agents, serving as a potential alternative to agrochemicals for overcoming the biotic and abiotic stresses. The importance of Trichoderma in alleviating the myriad of biotic and abiotic stresses of wheat is discussed in this review article. 

REFERENCES

  1. Ahluwalia, V., Kumar, J., Sisodia, R., Shakil, N. A. and Walia, S. (2014). Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles by Trichoderma harzianum and their bio-efficacy evaluation against Staphylococcus aureus and Klebsiella pneumonia. Industrial Crops and Products. 55: 202–206.
  2. Azad, K. and Kaminskyj, S. (2016). A fungal endophyte strategy for mitigating the effect of salt and drought stress on plant growth. Symbiosis. 68(1): 73-78.
  3. Baroncelli, R., Zapparata, A., Piaggeschi, G., Sarrocco, S. and Vannacci, G. (2016). Draft whole-genome sequence of Trichoderma gamsii T6085, a promising biocontrol agent of Fusarium Head Blight on wheat. Genome Announcements. 4(1): e01747-15. (doi:10.1128/genomeA.01747-15)
  4. Callaway, E. (2016). Devastating wheat fungus appears in Asia for first time. Nature. 532: 421-422.
  5. Chepsergon, J., Mwamburi, L. and Kassim, M. K. (2014). Mechanism of drought tolerance in plants using Trichoderma spp. International Journal of Science and Research. 3(11): 1592-1595.
  6. Colla, G., Rouphael, Y., Bonini, P. and Cardarelli, M. (2015). Coating seeds with endophytic fungi enhances growth, nutrient uptake, yield and grain quality of winter wheat. International Journal of Plant Production. 9(2): 171-189.
  7. Compant, S., Gerbore, J., Antonielli, L., Brutel, A. and Schmoll, M. (2017). Draft genome sequence of the root-colonizing fungus Trichoderma harzianum B97. Genom Announcements. 5(13): e00137-17 (doi: 10.1128/ genomeA.00137-17.)
  8. Contreras-Cornejo, H. A., Macias-Rodriguez, L., del-Val, E. and Larsen, J. (2016). Ecological functions of Trichoderma spp. and their secondary metabolites in the rhizosphere: interactions with plants. FEMS Microbiology Ecology. 92(4):1-17 (doi: 10.1093/femsec/fiw036)
  9. Devi, T. P., Kulanthaivel, S., Kamil, D., Borah, J. L., Prabhakaran, N. and Srinivasa, N. (2013). Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles from Trichoderma species. Indian journal of Experimental Biology. 51: 543-547.
  10. Donoso, E. P., Bustamante, R. O., Caru, M. and Niemeyer, H. M. (2008). Water deficit as a driver of the mutualistic relationship between the fungus Trichoderma harzianum and two wheat genotype. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 74(5):1412-1417.
  11. Druzhinina, I. S., Seidl-Seiboth, V., Herrera-Estrella, A., Horwitz, B. A., Kenerley, C. M., et al., (2011). Trichoderma: the genomics of opportunistic success. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 9: 749–59.
  12. El-Sharkawy, H. H. A., Tohamey, S. and Khalil, A. A. (2015). Combined effects of Streptomyces viridosporus and Trichoderma harzianum on controlling wheat leaf rust caused by Puccinia triticina. Plant Pathology Journal. 14 (4): 182-188.
  13. Geremia, R. A., Goldman, G. H., Jacobs, D., Ardiles, W., Vila, S. B. et al. (1993). Molecular characterization of the proteinase-    encoding gene, prb1, related to mycoparasitism by Trichoderma harzianum. Mol. Microbiol. 8: 603–613.
  14. Giri, P. and Pandey, S. N. (2016). Trichoderma spp. and metal chelator enhanced growth and yields in wheat plants by increasing zinc availability. International Education and Research Journal. 2(1): 66-70.
  15. Haggag, W. M., Abouziena, H. F., Abd-El-Kreem, F. and El Habbasha, S. (2015). Agriculture biotechnology for management of multiple biotic and abiotic environmental stress in crops. Journal of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Research. 7(10): 882-889.
  16. Hermosa, R., Viterbo, A., Chet, I. and Monte, E. (2012). Plant-beneficial effects of Trichoderma and of its genes. Microbiology. 158: 17–25.
  17. Jalill, R. D. A. and Numan, R. S. (2016). Silver nitrate and zirconium oxide nanoparticles as management of wheat damping-off caused by Fusarium graminearum. Journal of Genetic and Environmental Resources Conservation. 4(2): 85-93.
  18. Jewell, M. C., Campbell, B. C. and Godwin, I. D. (2010). Transgenic plants for abiotic stress resistance, in Transgenic crop plants (eds) Kole C et al, Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 67-    132 pages. (doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-04812-8_2)
  19. Joshi, A. K., Mishra, B., Chatrath, R., Ferrara, G. O. and Singh, R. P. (2007). Wheat improvement in India: present status, emerging challenges and future prospects. Euphytica. 157: 431–446. (doi: 10.1007/s10681-007-9385-7)
  20. Kamal, R., Gusain, Y. S., Kumar, V. and A. K. Sharma, A. K. (2015). Disease management through biological control agents: An eco-    friendly and cost effective approach for sustainable agriculture- A Review. Agricultural Reviews. 36 (1): 37-45.
  21. Kubicek, C. P., Herrera-Estrella, A., Seidl-Seiboth, V., Martinez, D. A. et al. (2011). Comparative genome sequence analysis underscores mycoparasitism as the ancestral life style of Trichoderma. Genome Biology. 12: R40 (doi: 10.1186/gb-2011-12-4-r40)
  22. Larran, S., Simon, M. R., Moreno, M. V., Siurana, M. P. S. and Perello, A. (2016).Endophytes from wheat as biocontrol agents against tan spot disease. Biological Control. 92: 17–23.
  23. Lorito, M., Woo, S. L., Harman, G. E. and Monte, E. (2010). Translational research on Trichoderma: from ‘omics to the field. Annu. Rev/ Phytopathol. 48: 395–417.
  24. Martinez, D., Berka, R. M., Henrissat, B., Saloheimo, M., Arvas, M. et al. (2008). Genome sequencing and analysis of the biomass-    degrading fungus Trichoderma reesei (syn. Hypocrea jecorina). Nat. Biotechnol. 26: 553–560.
  25. McIntosh, R. A. (1998). Breeding wheat for resistance to biotic stresses. Euphytica. 100: 19–34.
  26. Mehetre, S. T. and Mukherjee, P. K. (2015). Trichoderma improves nutrient use efficiency in crop plants, in Nutrient Use Efficiency: from Basics to Advances (eds) Rakshit A, Singh, HB, Sen A, India: Springer, 173-180 pages. (doi: 10.1007/978-81-322-    2169-2-11)
  27. Mishra, A., Kumari, M., Pandey, S., Chaudhry, V., Gupta, K. C. and Nautiyal, C. S. (2014). Biocatalytic and antimicrobial activities of gold nanoparticles synthesized by Trichoderma sp. Bioresource Technology. 166: 235–242.
  28. Mukherjee, P. K., Horwitz, B. A., Herrera-Estrella, A., Schmoll, M., Charles, M. and Kenerley, C. M. (2013). Trichoderma Research in the Genome Era. Ann. Rev. Phytopathol. 51: 105–29.
  29. Perello, A., Moreno, V., Monaco, C. and Simon, M. R. (2008). Effect of Trichoderma spp. isolates for biological control of tan spot of wheat caused by Pyrenophora tritici-    repentis under field conditions in Argentina. BioControl. 53: 895–904.
  30. Perello, A. E., Moreno, M. V., Monaco, C., Simon, M. R. and Cordo, C. (2009). Biological control of Septoria tritici blotch on wheat by Trichoderma spp. under field conditions in Argentina. BioControl. 54: 113–122.
  31. Pingali, P. L. (1999). CIMMYT 1998-99 World Wheat Facts and Trends. Global Wheat Research in a Changing World: Challenges and Achievements. Mexico, CIMMYT, 46 pages.
  32. Qin, W. T. and Zhuang, W. Y. (2016). Four new species of Trichoderma with hyaline ascospores from central China. Mycol. Progress. 15(8): 811-825.
  33. Rana, I. A., Loerz, H., Schaefer, W. and Becker, D. (2012). Overexpression of chitinase and chitosanase genes from Trichoderma harzianum under constitutive and inducible promoters in order to increase disease resistance in wheat (Triticum aestivum L). Mol. Plant Breed. 3: 37–49.
  34. Rawat, L., Bisht, T. S., Kukreti, A. and Prasad, M. (2016). Bioprospecting drought tolerant Trichoderma harzianum isolates promote growth and delay the onset of drought responses in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Molecular Soil Biology.7(4): 1-15.
  35. Rawat, L., Singh, Y., Shukla, N. and Kumar, J. (2011). Alleviation of the adverse effects of salinity stress in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) by seed biopriming with salinity tolerant isolates of Trichoderma harzianum. Plant Soil. 347: 387–400.
  36. Rhodes, D. and Nadolska-Orczyk, A. (2001). Plant Stress Physiology, UK: John Wiley and Sons, 1-7 pages (doi: 10.1038/    npg.els.0001297)
  37. Routray, S., Dey, D., Baral, S., Das, A. P. and Mahantheshwara, B. (2016). Genetic improvement of natural enemies: A review. Agricultural Reviews. 37 (4): 325-332.
  38. Sahebani, N. and Hadavi, N. (2008). Biological control of the root-knot nematode Meloidogyne javanica by Trichoderma harzianum. Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 40: 2016–2020.
  39. Schalchli, H., Tortella, G. R., Rubilar, O., Parra, L., Hormazabal, E. and Quiroz, A.(2014). Fungal volatiles: an environmentally friendly tool to control pathogenic microorganisms in plants. Crit. Rev. Biotechnol. 36(1): 144-152.
  40. Sharma, P., Kumar, P. V., Ramesh, R., Saravanan, K., Deep, S., Sharma, M., Mahesh, S. and Dinesh, S. (2011). Biocontrol genes from Trichoderma species: A review. African Journal of Biotechnology. 10(86); 19898-19907.
  41. Sharma, P., Patel, A. N., Saini, M. K. and Deep, S. (2012). Field Demonstration of Trichoderma harzianum as a plant growth promoter in wheat (Triticum aestivum L). Journal of Agricultural Science. 4(8): 65-73.
  42. Sharma, I., Tyagi, B. S., Singh, G., Venkatesh, K. and Gupta, O. P. (2015). Enhancing wheat production- A global perspective. Indian J. Agr. Sci. 85(1): 3-13.
  43. Shoresh, M., Harman, G. E. and Mastouri, F. (2010). Induced systemic resistance and plant responses to fungal biocontrol agents. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 48: 21–43.
  44. Stocco, M. C., Monaco, C. I., Abramoff, C., Lampugnani, G., Salerno, G., Kripelz, N., Cordo, C. A. and Consolo, V. F. (2016). Selection and characterization of Argentine isolates of Trichoderma harzianum for effective biocontrol of Septoria leaf blotch of wheat. World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 32: 49. (doi: 10.1007/s11274-015-1989-9)
  45. Vahabi, K., Mansoori, G. L. and Karimi, S. (2011). Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles by fungus Trichoderma Reesei (a route for large-scale production of AgNPs). Insciences Journal. 1(1): 65-79.
  46. Verma, M., Brar, S., Tyagi, R., Surampalli, R. and Valero, J. (2007). Antagonistic fungi, Trichoderma spp.: panoply of biological control. Biochem. Eng. J. 37: 1–20.
  47. Weindling, R. (1932). Trichoderma lignorum as a parasite of other soil fungi. Phytopathology. 22: 837–45.
  48. Xue, A. G., Guo, W., Chen, Y., Siddiqui, I., Marchand, G., Liu, J. and Ren, R. (2017). Effect of seed treatment with novel strains of Trichoderma spp. on establishment and yield of spring wheat. Crop Protection. 96: 97-102.
  49. Yadav, B., Singh, R. and Kumar, A. (2015). Management of spot blotch of wheat using Fungicides, Bio-agents and Botanicals. African Journal of Agricultural Research. 10(25): 2494-2500.
  50. Zafari, D., Koushki, M. M. and Bazgir, E. (2008). Biocontrol evaluation of wheat take-all disease by Trichoderma screened isolates. African Journal of Biotechnology. 7 (20): 3653-3659.
  51. Zaidi, N. W., Dar, M. H., Singh, S. and Singh, U. S. (2014) Trichoderma Species as abiotic stress relievers in plants. In: Biotechnology and Biology of Trichoderma (Eds. Gupta et al.).    Elsevier publication, 515-525 pages (doi: 10.1016/B978-0-444-59576-    8.00038-2)
  52. Zhang, S., Gan, Y., Xu, B. and Xue, Y. (2014). The parasitic and lethal effects of Trichoderma longibrachiatum against Heterodera avenae. Biological Control. 72: 1–8. (doi: 10.1016/j.biocontrol.2014.01.009)
     
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    Reviewer Article

    volume 39 issue 1 (march 2018) : 48-54,   Doi: 10.18805/ag.R-1770

    Trichoderma as an efficacious bioagent for combating biotic and abiotic stresses of wheat-A review

    O
    O.P. Gangwar
    A
    Akanksha P.K. Singh
    1ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research, Regional Station, Flowerdale, Shimla-171 002, Himachal Pradesh, India.
    Cite article:- Gangwar O.P., Singh P.K. Akanksha (2018). Trichoderma as an efficacious bioagent for combating biotic and abiotic stresses of wheat-A review. Agricultural Reviews. 39(1): 48-54. doi: 10.18805/ag.R-1770.

    ABSTRACT

    Several environmental stresses are the major hindrances in achieving the attainable yield in wheat crop. The actual losses due to biotic stresses is estimated in the range of 26-29%, however, abiotic stresses have more adverse effects on crop yield and are responsible for about 70% of yield reduction worldwide. Agrochemicals are widely considered as an effective management strategy for wheat crop diseases and insect pests but they adversely affect the human and animal health due to accumulation of chemical residues in the soil, plant tissues and grains. Hence, there is a need for alternate management strategies to protect crop plants against various stresses. Species of the genus Trichoderma are economically important as biocontrol agents, serving as a potential alternative to agrochemicals for overcoming the biotic and abiotic stresses. The importance of Trichoderma in alleviating the myriad of biotic and abiotic stresses of wheat is discussed in this review article. 

    REFERENCES

    1. Ahluwalia, V., Kumar, J., Sisodia, R., Shakil, N. A. and Walia, S. (2014). Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles by Trichoderma harzianum and their bio-efficacy evaluation against Staphylococcus aureus and Klebsiella pneumonia. Industrial Crops and Products. 55: 202–206.
    2. Azad, K. and Kaminskyj, S. (2016). A fungal endophyte strategy for mitigating the effect of salt and drought stress on plant growth. Symbiosis. 68(1): 73-78.
    3. Baroncelli, R., Zapparata, A., Piaggeschi, G., Sarrocco, S. and Vannacci, G. (2016). Draft whole-genome sequence of Trichoderma gamsii T6085, a promising biocontrol agent of Fusarium Head Blight on wheat. Genome Announcements. 4(1): e01747-15. (doi:10.1128/genomeA.01747-15)
    4. Callaway, E. (2016). Devastating wheat fungus appears in Asia for first time. Nature. 532: 421-422.
    5. Chepsergon, J., Mwamburi, L. and Kassim, M. K. (2014). Mechanism of drought tolerance in plants using Trichoderma spp. International Journal of Science and Research. 3(11): 1592-1595.
    6. Colla, G., Rouphael, Y., Bonini, P. and Cardarelli, M. (2015). Coating seeds with endophytic fungi enhances growth, nutrient uptake, yield and grain quality of winter wheat. International Journal of Plant Production. 9(2): 171-189.
    7. Compant, S., Gerbore, J., Antonielli, L., Brutel, A. and Schmoll, M. (2017). Draft genome sequence of the root-colonizing fungus Trichoderma harzianum B97. Genom Announcements. 5(13): e00137-17 (doi: 10.1128/ genomeA.00137-17.)
    8. Contreras-Cornejo, H. A., Macias-Rodriguez, L., del-Val, E. and Larsen, J. (2016). Ecological functions of Trichoderma spp. and their secondary metabolites in the rhizosphere: interactions with plants. FEMS Microbiology Ecology. 92(4):1-17 (doi: 10.1093/femsec/fiw036)
    9. Devi, T. P., Kulanthaivel, S., Kamil, D., Borah, J. L., Prabhakaran, N. and Srinivasa, N. (2013). Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles from Trichoderma species. Indian journal of Experimental Biology. 51: 543-547.
    10. Donoso, E. P., Bustamante, R. O., Caru, M. and Niemeyer, H. M. (2008). Water deficit as a driver of the mutualistic relationship between the fungus Trichoderma harzianum and two wheat genotype. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 74(5):1412-1417.
    11. Druzhinina, I. S., Seidl-Seiboth, V., Herrera-Estrella, A., Horwitz, B. A., Kenerley, C. M., et al., (2011). Trichoderma: the genomics of opportunistic success. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 9: 749–59.
    12. El-Sharkawy, H. H. A., Tohamey, S. and Khalil, A. A. (2015). Combined effects of Streptomyces viridosporus and Trichoderma harzianum on controlling wheat leaf rust caused by Puccinia triticina. Plant Pathology Journal. 14 (4): 182-188.
    13. Geremia, R. A., Goldman, G. H., Jacobs, D., Ardiles, W., Vila, S. B. et al. (1993). Molecular characterization of the proteinase-    encoding gene, prb1, related to mycoparasitism by Trichoderma harzianum. Mol. Microbiol. 8: 603–613.
    14. Giri, P. and Pandey, S. N. (2016). Trichoderma spp. and metal chelator enhanced growth and yields in wheat plants by increasing zinc availability. International Education and Research Journal. 2(1): 66-70.
    15. Haggag, W. M., Abouziena, H. F., Abd-El-Kreem, F. and El Habbasha, S. (2015). Agriculture biotechnology for management of multiple biotic and abiotic environmental stress in crops. Journal of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Research. 7(10): 882-889.
    16. Hermosa, R., Viterbo, A., Chet, I. and Monte, E. (2012). Plant-beneficial effects of Trichoderma and of its genes. Microbiology. 158: 17–25.
    17. Jalill, R. D. A. and Numan, R. S. (2016). Silver nitrate and zirconium oxide nanoparticles as management of wheat damping-off caused by Fusarium graminearum. Journal of Genetic and Environmental Resources Conservation. 4(2): 85-93.
    18. Jewell, M. C., Campbell, B. C. and Godwin, I. D. (2010). Transgenic plants for abiotic stress resistance, in Transgenic crop plants (eds) Kole C et al, Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 67-    132 pages. (doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-04812-8_2)
    19. Joshi, A. K., Mishra, B., Chatrath, R., Ferrara, G. O. and Singh, R. P. (2007). Wheat improvement in India: present status, emerging challenges and future prospects. Euphytica. 157: 431–446. (doi: 10.1007/s10681-007-9385-7)
    20. Kamal, R., Gusain, Y. S., Kumar, V. and A. K. Sharma, A. K. (2015). Disease management through biological control agents: An eco-    friendly and cost effective approach for sustainable agriculture- A Review. Agricultural Reviews. 36 (1): 37-45.
    21. Kubicek, C. P., Herrera-Estrella, A., Seidl-Seiboth, V., Martinez, D. A. et al. (2011). Comparative genome sequence analysis underscores mycoparasitism as the ancestral life style of Trichoderma. Genome Biology. 12: R40 (doi: 10.1186/gb-2011-12-4-r40)
    22. Larran, S., Simon, M. R., Moreno, M. V., Siurana, M. P. S. and Perello, A. (2016).Endophytes from wheat as biocontrol agents against tan spot disease. Biological Control. 92: 17–23.
    23. Lorito, M., Woo, S. L., Harman, G. E. and Monte, E. (2010). Translational research on Trichoderma: from ‘omics to the field. Annu. Rev/ Phytopathol. 48: 395–417.
    24. Martinez, D., Berka, R. M., Henrissat, B., Saloheimo, M., Arvas, M. et al. (2008). Genome sequencing and analysis of the biomass-    degrading fungus Trichoderma reesei (syn. Hypocrea jecorina). Nat. Biotechnol. 26: 553–560.
    25. McIntosh, R. A. (1998). Breeding wheat for resistance to biotic stresses. Euphytica. 100: 19–34.
    26. Mehetre, S. T. and Mukherjee, P. K. (2015). Trichoderma improves nutrient use efficiency in crop plants, in Nutrient Use Efficiency: from Basics to Advances (eds) Rakshit A, Singh, HB, Sen A, India: Springer, 173-180 pages. (doi: 10.1007/978-81-322-    2169-2-11)
    27. Mishra, A., Kumari, M., Pandey, S., Chaudhry, V., Gupta, K. C. and Nautiyal, C. S. (2014). Biocatalytic and antimicrobial activities of gold nanoparticles synthesized by Trichoderma sp. Bioresource Technology. 166: 235–242.
    28. Mukherjee, P. K., Horwitz, B. A., Herrera-Estrella, A., Schmoll, M., Charles, M. and Kenerley, C. M. (2013). Trichoderma Research in the Genome Era. Ann. Rev. Phytopathol. 51: 105–29.
    29. Perello, A., Moreno, V., Monaco, C. and Simon, M. R. (2008). Effect of Trichoderma spp. isolates for biological control of tan spot of wheat caused by Pyrenophora tritici-    repentis under field conditions in Argentina. BioControl. 53: 895–904.
    30. Perello, A. E., Moreno, M. V., Monaco, C., Simon, M. R. and Cordo, C. (2009). Biological control of Septoria tritici blotch on wheat by Trichoderma spp. under field conditions in Argentina. BioControl. 54: 113–122.
    31. Pingali, P. L. (1999). CIMMYT 1998-99 World Wheat Facts and Trends. Global Wheat Research in a Changing World: Challenges and Achievements. Mexico, CIMMYT, 46 pages.
    32. Qin, W. T. and Zhuang, W. Y. (2016). Four new species of Trichoderma with hyaline ascospores from central China. Mycol. Progress. 15(8): 811-825.
    33. Rana, I. A., Loerz, H., Schaefer, W. and Becker, D. (2012). Overexpression of chitinase and chitosanase genes from Trichoderma harzianum under constitutive and inducible promoters in order to increase disease resistance in wheat (Triticum aestivum L). Mol. Plant Breed. 3: 37–49.
    34. Rawat, L., Bisht, T. S., Kukreti, A. and Prasad, M. (2016). Bioprospecting drought tolerant Trichoderma harzianum isolates promote growth and delay the onset of drought responses in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Molecular Soil Biology.7(4): 1-15.
    35. Rawat, L., Singh, Y., Shukla, N. and Kumar, J. (2011). Alleviation of the adverse effects of salinity stress in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) by seed biopriming with salinity tolerant isolates of Trichoderma harzianum. Plant Soil. 347: 387–400.
    36. Rhodes, D. and Nadolska-Orczyk, A. (2001). Plant Stress Physiology, UK: John Wiley and Sons, 1-7 pages (doi: 10.1038/    npg.els.0001297)
    37. Routray, S., Dey, D., Baral, S., Das, A. P. and Mahantheshwara, B. (2016). Genetic improvement of natural enemies: A review. Agricultural Reviews. 37 (4): 325-332.
    38. Sahebani, N. and Hadavi, N. (2008). Biological control of the root-knot nematode Meloidogyne javanica by Trichoderma harzianum. Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 40: 2016–2020.
    39. Schalchli, H., Tortella, G. R., Rubilar, O., Parra, L., Hormazabal, E. and Quiroz, A.(2014). Fungal volatiles: an environmentally friendly tool to control pathogenic microorganisms in plants. Crit. Rev. Biotechnol. 36(1): 144-152.
    40. Sharma, P., Kumar, P. V., Ramesh, R., Saravanan, K., Deep, S., Sharma, M., Mahesh, S. and Dinesh, S. (2011). Biocontrol genes from Trichoderma species: A review. African Journal of Biotechnology. 10(86); 19898-19907.
    41. Sharma, P., Patel, A. N., Saini, M. K. and Deep, S. (2012). Field Demonstration of Trichoderma harzianum as a plant growth promoter in wheat (Triticum aestivum L). Journal of Agricultural Science. 4(8): 65-73.
    42. Sharma, I., Tyagi, B. S., Singh, G., Venkatesh, K. and Gupta, O. P. (2015). Enhancing wheat production- A global perspective. Indian J. Agr. Sci. 85(1): 3-13.
    43. Shoresh, M., Harman, G. E. and Mastouri, F. (2010). Induced systemic resistance and plant responses to fungal biocontrol agents. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 48: 21–43.
    44. Stocco, M. C., Monaco, C. I., Abramoff, C., Lampugnani, G., Salerno, G., Kripelz, N., Cordo, C. A. and Consolo, V. F. (2016). Selection and characterization of Argentine isolates of Trichoderma harzianum for effective biocontrol of Septoria leaf blotch of wheat. World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 32: 49. (doi: 10.1007/s11274-015-1989-9)
    45. Vahabi, K., Mansoori, G. L. and Karimi, S. (2011). Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles by fungus Trichoderma Reesei (a route for large-scale production of AgNPs). Insciences Journal. 1(1): 65-79.
    46. Verma, M., Brar, S., Tyagi, R., Surampalli, R. and Valero, J. (2007). Antagonistic fungi, Trichoderma spp.: panoply of biological control. Biochem. Eng. J. 37: 1–20.
    47. Weindling, R. (1932). Trichoderma lignorum as a parasite of other soil fungi. Phytopathology. 22: 837–45.
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