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Current IssueEditorial BoardOnline First ArticlesArchive

volume 30 issue 1 (march 2009) : 40 - 47

POTENTIALS OF GREEN MANURE IN INTEGRATED NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT FOR RICE – A REVIEW

R
R.V. Selvi
R
R. Kalpana
1Department of Agronomy Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore 641003, India

  • Submitted|

  • First Online |

  • doi

Cite article:- Selvi R.V., Kalpana R. (2025). POTENTIALS OF GREEN MANURE IN INTEGRATED NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT FOR RICE – A REVIEW. Agricultural Reviews. 30(1): 40 - 47. doi: .

ABSTRACT

The agriculture of the modern chemical era concentrates on maximum output but overlooks input
efficiency as a result of which it has not been sustainable. Stagnation in maximum yield potential during
the recent years in crops like rice and wheat is a real concern for agricultural scientists and professional
technocrats. Undoubtedly the decreasing rate of increase in cereal production is mainly attributed to too
much dependence on inorganic fertilizers mainly high analysis fertilizers. Under high input production
systems where productivity cannot be further increased with incremental use of mineral fertilizers alone,
addition of organic sources could increase yields through increased soil productivity and higher fertilizer
use efficiency. Green manuring of rice is a well established practice and saving of fertilizer N through
green manuring ranged from 30 to 100 kg N ha-1. The magnitude of leaching, denitrification and NH3
volatilization losses are lower for green manure-N than for fertilizer-N. In addition, green manures provide
N and other mineral nutrients for the immediate need of the growing rice crop and improve soil physical
and chemical properties. There was considerable build up of soil organic carbon content due to the
addition of organic N sources especially green manures. Combined application of fertilizer and green
manure increased the efficiency of each other. The past research on these aspects would enable scientists
working on green manures and hence reviewed here under.

KEYWORDS

    REFERENCES

    1. Abraham Varughese and Sushama Kumari. P. (1993). J. Trop. Agric. 31 : 359-261.
    2. Alexander, M. (1977). Introduction to Soil Microbiology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. p.467.
    3. Atkar, M. S., et al. (1993). Ann. Bangladesh Agric. 3 (2) :109-114.
    4. Bal, A.S., et al. (1993). J. Maharashtra Agric. Univ. 18 (2) : 235-237.
    5. Balasubramanian, R. and Veerabadran, V. (1997). Indian J. Agron. 42 (2) : 285-287.
    6. Bana, O. P. S. and Pant. A. K. (2000). Indian Farmer’s Digest 33 (2) : 19-20.
    7. Becker, M. (1990). Ph.D. Thesis, University of Giessen, Germany. p. 113.
    8. Becker, M., et al. (1990) Soil biol. Bio Chem. 22: 1109-1119
    9. Becker, M. et al. (1994) Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 58 : 1660 – 1665.
    10. Becker, M., et al. (1995) Plant and Soil 174 (1&2) : 181-194.
    11. Beri, V., et al.. (1989) Trop. Agric. 66 (2) : 11-16.
    12. Beri, V., et al. (1989) Trop. Agric. 66 (3) : 209-212.
    13. Bhagat, R. M., et al. (1988) Oryza 25 : 255-260.
    14. Bharadwaj, K. K. R. (1982) Indian J. Agron. 27 (3) : 284 – 285.
    15. Bharadwaj, K. K. R. and Dev, S. P. (1985) Trop. Agric. 62 : 233.
    16. Bharadwaj, K.K.R. and Datt. M.(1995) Biol.Fertil. Soils 19(1) : 19-21.
    17. Bhattacharyya, K. and Mandal. S. R. (1996) Indian Agric. 40 (3) : 199-208.
    18. Bhattacharyya, K. and Mandal. S. R. (1997) IRRN. 22 (1) : 41
    19. 46 AGRICUTURAL REVIEWS
    20. Bhuiyan, N. I. and Zaman. S. K. (1996) In: Biological Nitrogen Fixation Associated with Rice Production, (Rahmaned et al.,)
    21. Dordrecht, Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands. pp. 51-64.
    22. Bindra, A. D. and Thakur, R. C. (1995) Crop Res. 9 (2) : 224-228.
    23. Bouldin, D. R. (1988) In: Proc. Symposium on Sustainable Agriculture, Int. Rice Res. Inst., Los Banos, Philippines, 25-29
    24. May 1987. pp. 151-163.
    25. Bouldin, D. R., et al. (1988) In: Nitrogen in Crop Production, (Hanck, R.D. ed) Am. Soc. Agron., Madison, Wisconsin. pp.
    26. 221-248.
    27. Brar, D. S. and Sidhu. A. S. (1995) J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 43 (1) : 14-17.
    28. Budhar, M. N. and Palaniappan. SP.(1996) Fert. News 41 (8) : 51-54.
    29. Buresh, R. J. and De Datta S. K.. (1991) Adv. Agron. 45 : 1-59.
    30. Chakraborty, P. K. and Mandal, L. N. (1992) Indian agric. 36 (3) : 131-140.
    31. Chakravorti, S. P., et al. (1989) Oryza 26 : 196-198.
    32. Chaphale, S.D., et al. (2000) J. Soils and Crops 10 (1) : 136-140.
    33. Clement, A., J. et al. (1998) Agron.J. 90 (2) : 149-154.
    34. Dalel Singh and Hari Om. (1992) Haryana J.Agron. 8 (2) : 155-156.
    35. Dargan, K. S., et al. (1975) Indian Farming 25 (3) : 13-15.
    36. Das, R., et al. (1995) IRRN 29 (3) : 20.
    37. De Datta, S. K. (1995) Fert. Res. 42 : 193-203.
    38. Dey, P. and Jain. J. M. (1996) J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 44 (4) : 633-638.
    39. Dinesh. R. and Dubey. R. P. (1998) J. Agron. Crop Sci. 181 : 49-53.
    40. Garrity, D. P. and Flinn. J. C. (1987) In: Proceedings of Symposium on Sustainable Agriculture - the role of Green manure
    41. in rice farming systems, 25-29 May, 1987. Int. Rice Res. Inst. Philippines. pp. 111-130.
    42. Geethalakshmi, V., et al. (1999) In: Vistas of rice (Platinum Jubilee 1922-1997) of Tamil Nadu Rice Research Institute,
    43. Aduthurai. pp. 266-274.
    44. George, M. and R. Prasad. (1989) Res. Dev. agric. 6:115-118.
    45. Ghai, S. K., et al. (1988) Biol. Fertil. Soils 6: 22-25.
    46. Gill, M. S., et al. (1994) Indian J. Agron. 39 (4) : 606-608.
    47. Greenland, D. J., et al. (1979) J. Soil Sci. 26: 291-294.
    48. Gurung, G.B. and D.P. Sherchen. (1996) In: PAC – Technical – Paper – Pakhribas. Agricultural Centre. p. 170.
    49. Hiremath, S. M. and Patel, Z. G. (1998) Indian J. Agron. 43 (1) :71-76.
    50. Huang, Z. W. and Liao, H. (1992) J. South China Agric. Univ. 13 (3) :112-116.
    51. Hundal, H. S., et al. (1987) Biol. Wastes 22: 97-105.
    52. Joshi, R. C., et al. (1994) J. Agric. Sci. Camb. 122:107-113.
    53. Kalidurai, M. (1998) Ann. Agric. Res. 19 (4) : 365-369.
    54. Khind, C. S., et al. (1985) IRRN 10 (4) :26-27.
    55. Khind, C. S., et al. (1989) IRRN 14 (2) : 31-32.
    56. Kolar, J. S., et al. (1993) Trop. Agric. 70 : 301-304.
    57. Kumar, A. and Yadav, D. S. (1995) Indian J. Agric. Sci. 65 (10) : 703-707.
    58. Kumar, A., et al. (1999) J. Agric. Sci. 132 (2) : 149-154.
    59. Ladd, J. N., et al. (1985) Aust. J. Soil Res. 23 : 603.
    60. Ladha, J. K., et al. (1988) In: Proceedings of Symposium on Sustainable Agriculture: Green manure in rice farming, 25-29,
    61. May 1987. Int. Rice Res. Inst., Philippines. pp. 165-183.
    62. Lekha Sreekantan and Palaniappan, SP. (1990) J. Agron. Crop. Sci. 165:14-18.
    63. Lekha Sreekantan (1987) Ph.D. Thesis, Tamil Nadu Agric. Univ., Coimbatore
    64. Matiwade, P. S. and Sheelavantar, M. N. (1994) Oryza 31:196-198.
    65. Meelu, O. P. and Rekhi, R. S. (1983) Fert. News 26:16-22.
    66. Miki, T. and More, T. (1968) Bull. Takai. Kenkinat. Agric. Exp. Stn. 17 : 59.
    67. Misra, R. D., Gupta, V. K. and Pandey, D. S. (1996) IRRN 21 (2-3) :71-72.
    68. Nagarajah, S., et al. (1989) Plant and Soil 116 :37-48.
    69. Nagarajah, S., (1988) in: Proceedings of Symposium on Sustainable Agriculture : Green manuring in Rice farming. Int. Rice
    70. Res. Inst., 25-29 May, 1987 – IRRI. Philippines. Pp 194-208
    71. Nazemi, D., et al. (1995) IRRN 20 (3) : 18-19.
    72. Ndoye, I. And Dreyfus, B. (1988) Soil Biol. Biochem. 20 : 209-213.
    73. Padmavathy, V. K. (1992) M.Sc.(Ag.) Thesis, Tamil Nadu Agrl. Univ., Coimbatore.
    74. Palaniappan, SP. et al. (1990) In: Proc. International Symposium on National Resources Management for sustainable
    75. Agriculture, 6-10 February, 1990, New Delhi. p. 220.
    76. Palm, O., et al. (1988) Plant and Soil 108 : 201-209.
    77. Vol. 30, No. 1, 2009 47
    78. Pandey, R. K. and Morris, R. A. (1983) In : Proc. International Rice Research Conference, April 18-23, 1983 at the International
    79. Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Philippines.
    80. Ponnamperuma, F. N. (1964) Dynamic aspects of flooded soils and the nutrition of the rice plant. John Hopkins Press,
    81. Battimne, Maryland. pp. 295-328.
    82. Poovaradom, S., et al. (1988) Soil Sci. 145 : 257.
    83. Pramanik, S.C. and Mahapatra, B. S. (1997) Oryza 34 : 181-184.
    84. Pushpavalli, R., et al. (1993) The Hindu dated 24.04.1993.
    85. Rajeswari, C. (1990) M.Sc.(Ag.) Thesis, Tamil Nadu Agric. Univ., Coimbatore.
    86. Rekhi, R. S. and Bajwa, M. S. (1994) Fert. Res. 34(1) : 15-22.
    87. Salu Reddy, N., et al. (1995) J. Res. APAU. 23 (4) :97-99.
    88. Sankaran, N., et al. (2000) In: Theme papers on Integrated Nutrient Management (Ed.) Kannaiyan et al., published by Tamil
    89. Nadu Agric. Univ., and State Dept. Agriculture. pp.111-121.
    90. Santra, G. H., et al. (1988) J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 36 (4) :652-659.
    91. Sharma, J. C. and Kuhad, M. S. (1993) IRRN 18 (3) : 28.
    92. Sharma, K.N., et al. (1985) J.Agric.Sci.Camb. 104 : 609-613.
    93. Siddeswaran, K. (1992) Ph.D. Thesis, Tamil Nadu Agric.Univ., Coimbatore.
    94. Singh, K. N. and Bhattacharyya, H. C. (1989) Direct-seeded rice. Published by Mohan Primlani for Oxford and IBH
    95. publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi. pp.135-142.
    96. Singh, R. K., et al. (1991) In: Proc. 22nd Asian Rice Farming Systems Working group meeting. Sept.30-Oct.4, 1991. Beijing,
    97. China. p.219-230.
    98. Singh, Y., et al. (1990) IRRN 15 (1) : 23.
    99. Singh, G. R., et al. (1999) IRRN 24 (3): p.25.
    100. Singh, N.T. (1984) In: Organic matter and rice, Int. Rice Res. Inst., Los Banos, Philippines. pp.217-228.
    101. Solaiappan, V., S. et al. (1996) Indian J. Agron. 41 (1) : 147-149.
    102. Somasundaram, E., et al. (1996) Madras Agric. J. 83 (12) : 758-760.
    103. Sreeramachandrasekaran, M. V., et al. (1996) Oryza 33 : 126-131.
    104. Srivastava, O. P. (1998) Indian J. Agric. Chem. 31 (1) : 1-12.
    105. Subbalakshmi Lokanadhan, et al. (1999) In: Vistas of Rice Research (Platinum jubilee 1922 – 1997) of Tamil Nadu Rice
    106. Research Institute, Aduthurai. pp. 343-344.
    107. Sur, H. S., et al. (1993) Ann. Agric. Res. 14 (2) :125-131.
    108. Susan John, K. and Alice Abraham. (1995) J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 43(1) : 47-52.
    109. Tiwari, C., et al. (1995) Indian J. Agric. Sci. 64 (10) : 708-711.
    110. Vachhani, M. B. and Murthy, K. S. (1964) Green manuring for rice. ICAR Res. Report. Ser. No.17. ICAR, New Delhi. p.50.
    111. Ventura, W. and Watanabe, I. (1993) Biol. Fert. Soils 15 : 241-248.
    112. Westcott, M. P. and Mikkelson, D. S. (1987) Agron. J. 79 : 937-943.
    113. Yadvinder Singh, et al. (1991) Adv. Agron. 45: 135-190.
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      volume 30 issue 1 (march 2009) : 40 - 47

      POTENTIALS OF GREEN MANURE IN INTEGRATED NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT FOR RICE – A REVIEW

      R
      R.V. Selvi
      R
      R. Kalpana
      1Department of Agronomy Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore 641003, India

      • Submitted|

      • First Online |

      • doi

      Cite article:- Selvi R.V., Kalpana R. (2025). POTENTIALS OF GREEN MANURE IN INTEGRATED NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT FOR RICE – A REVIEW. Agricultural Reviews. 30(1): 40 - 47. doi: .

      ABSTRACT

      The agriculture of the modern chemical era concentrates on maximum output but overlooks input
      efficiency as a result of which it has not been sustainable. Stagnation in maximum yield potential during
      the recent years in crops like rice and wheat is a real concern for agricultural scientists and professional
      technocrats. Undoubtedly the decreasing rate of increase in cereal production is mainly attributed to too
      much dependence on inorganic fertilizers mainly high analysis fertilizers. Under high input production
      systems where productivity cannot be further increased with incremental use of mineral fertilizers alone,
      addition of organic sources could increase yields through increased soil productivity and higher fertilizer
      use efficiency. Green manuring of rice is a well established practice and saving of fertilizer N through
      green manuring ranged from 30 to 100 kg N ha-1. The magnitude of leaching, denitrification and NH3
      volatilization losses are lower for green manure-N than for fertilizer-N. In addition, green manures provide
      N and other mineral nutrients for the immediate need of the growing rice crop and improve soil physical
      and chemical properties. There was considerable build up of soil organic carbon content due to the
      addition of organic N sources especially green manures. Combined application of fertilizer and green
      manure increased the efficiency of each other. The past research on these aspects would enable scientists
      working on green manures and hence reviewed here under.

      KEYWORDS

        REFERENCES

        1. Abraham Varughese and Sushama Kumari. P. (1993). J. Trop. Agric. 31 : 359-261.
        2. Alexander, M. (1977). Introduction to Soil Microbiology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. p.467.
        3. Atkar, M. S., et al. (1993). Ann. Bangladesh Agric. 3 (2) :109-114.
        4. Bal, A.S., et al. (1993). J. Maharashtra Agric. Univ. 18 (2) : 235-237.
        5. Balasubramanian, R. and Veerabadran, V. (1997). Indian J. Agron. 42 (2) : 285-287.
        6. Bana, O. P. S. and Pant. A. K. (2000). Indian Farmer’s Digest 33 (2) : 19-20.
        7. Becker, M. (1990). Ph.D. Thesis, University of Giessen, Germany. p. 113.
        8. Becker, M., et al. (1990) Soil biol. Bio Chem. 22: 1109-1119
        9. Becker, M. et al. (1994) Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 58 : 1660 – 1665.
        10. Becker, M., et al. (1995) Plant and Soil 174 (1&2) : 181-194.
        11. Beri, V., et al.. (1989) Trop. Agric. 66 (2) : 11-16.
        12. Beri, V., et al. (1989) Trop. Agric. 66 (3) : 209-212.
        13. Bhagat, R. M., et al. (1988) Oryza 25 : 255-260.
        14. Bharadwaj, K. K. R. (1982) Indian J. Agron. 27 (3) : 284 – 285.
        15. Bharadwaj, K. K. R. and Dev, S. P. (1985) Trop. Agric. 62 : 233.
        16. Bharadwaj, K.K.R. and Datt. M.(1995) Biol.Fertil. Soils 19(1) : 19-21.
        17. Bhattacharyya, K. and Mandal. S. R. (1996) Indian Agric. 40 (3) : 199-208.
        18. Bhattacharyya, K. and Mandal. S. R. (1997) IRRN. 22 (1) : 41
        19. 46 AGRICUTURAL REVIEWS
        20. Bhuiyan, N. I. and Zaman. S. K. (1996) In: Biological Nitrogen Fixation Associated with Rice Production, (Rahmaned et al.,)
        21. Dordrecht, Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands. pp. 51-64.
        22. Bindra, A. D. and Thakur, R. C. (1995) Crop Res. 9 (2) : 224-228.
        23. Bouldin, D. R. (1988) In: Proc. Symposium on Sustainable Agriculture, Int. Rice Res. Inst., Los Banos, Philippines, 25-29
        24. May 1987. pp. 151-163.
        25. Bouldin, D. R., et al. (1988) In: Nitrogen in Crop Production, (Hanck, R.D. ed) Am. Soc. Agron., Madison, Wisconsin. pp.
        26. 221-248.
        27. Brar, D. S. and Sidhu. A. S. (1995) J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 43 (1) : 14-17.
        28. Budhar, M. N. and Palaniappan. SP.(1996) Fert. News 41 (8) : 51-54.
        29. Buresh, R. J. and De Datta S. K.. (1991) Adv. Agron. 45 : 1-59.
        30. Chakraborty, P. K. and Mandal, L. N. (1992) Indian agric. 36 (3) : 131-140.
        31. Chakravorti, S. P., et al. (1989) Oryza 26 : 196-198.
        32. Chaphale, S.D., et al. (2000) J. Soils and Crops 10 (1) : 136-140.
        33. Clement, A., J. et al. (1998) Agron.J. 90 (2) : 149-154.
        34. Dalel Singh and Hari Om. (1992) Haryana J.Agron. 8 (2) : 155-156.
        35. Dargan, K. S., et al. (1975) Indian Farming 25 (3) : 13-15.
        36. Das, R., et al. (1995) IRRN 29 (3) : 20.
        37. De Datta, S. K. (1995) Fert. Res. 42 : 193-203.
        38. Dey, P. and Jain. J. M. (1996) J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 44 (4) : 633-638.
        39. Dinesh. R. and Dubey. R. P. (1998) J. Agron. Crop Sci. 181 : 49-53.
        40. Garrity, D. P. and Flinn. J. C. (1987) In: Proceedings of Symposium on Sustainable Agriculture - the role of Green manure
        41. in rice farming systems, 25-29 May, 1987. Int. Rice Res. Inst. Philippines. pp. 111-130.
        42. Geethalakshmi, V., et al. (1999) In: Vistas of rice (Platinum Jubilee 1922-1997) of Tamil Nadu Rice Research Institute,
        43. Aduthurai. pp. 266-274.
        44. George, M. and R. Prasad. (1989) Res. Dev. agric. 6:115-118.
        45. Ghai, S. K., et al. (1988) Biol. Fertil. Soils 6: 22-25.
        46. Gill, M. S., et al. (1994) Indian J. Agron. 39 (4) : 606-608.
        47. Greenland, D. J., et al. (1979) J. Soil Sci. 26: 291-294.
        48. Gurung, G.B. and D.P. Sherchen. (1996) In: PAC – Technical – Paper – Pakhribas. Agricultural Centre. p. 170.
        49. Hiremath, S. M. and Patel, Z. G. (1998) Indian J. Agron. 43 (1) :71-76.
        50. Huang, Z. W. and Liao, H. (1992) J. South China Agric. Univ. 13 (3) :112-116.
        51. Hundal, H. S., et al. (1987) Biol. Wastes 22: 97-105.
        52. Joshi, R. C., et al. (1994) J. Agric. Sci. Camb. 122:107-113.
        53. Kalidurai, M. (1998) Ann. Agric. Res. 19 (4) : 365-369.
        54. Khind, C. S., et al. (1985) IRRN 10 (4) :26-27.
        55. Khind, C. S., et al. (1989) IRRN 14 (2) : 31-32.
        56. Kolar, J. S., et al. (1993) Trop. Agric. 70 : 301-304.
        57. Kumar, A. and Yadav, D. S. (1995) Indian J. Agric. Sci. 65 (10) : 703-707.
        58. Kumar, A., et al. (1999) J. Agric. Sci. 132 (2) : 149-154.
        59. Ladd, J. N., et al. (1985) Aust. J. Soil Res. 23 : 603.
        60. Ladha, J. K., et al. (1988) In: Proceedings of Symposium on Sustainable Agriculture: Green manure in rice farming, 25-29,
        61. May 1987. Int. Rice Res. Inst., Philippines. pp. 165-183.
        62. Lekha Sreekantan and Palaniappan, SP. (1990) J. Agron. Crop. Sci. 165:14-18.
        63. Lekha Sreekantan (1987) Ph.D. Thesis, Tamil Nadu Agric. Univ., Coimbatore
        64. Matiwade, P. S. and Sheelavantar, M. N. (1994) Oryza 31:196-198.
        65. Meelu, O. P. and Rekhi, R. S. (1983) Fert. News 26:16-22.
        66. Miki, T. and More, T. (1968) Bull. Takai. Kenkinat. Agric. Exp. Stn. 17 : 59.
        67. Misra, R. D., Gupta, V. K. and Pandey, D. S. (1996) IRRN 21 (2-3) :71-72.
        68. Nagarajah, S., et al. (1989) Plant and Soil 116 :37-48.
        69. Nagarajah, S., (1988) in: Proceedings of Symposium on Sustainable Agriculture : Green manuring in Rice farming. Int. Rice
        70. Res. Inst., 25-29 May, 1987 – IRRI. Philippines. Pp 194-208
        71. Nazemi, D., et al. (1995) IRRN 20 (3) : 18-19.
        72. Ndoye, I. And Dreyfus, B. (1988) Soil Biol. Biochem. 20 : 209-213.
        73. Padmavathy, V. K. (1992) M.Sc.(Ag.) Thesis, Tamil Nadu Agrl. Univ., Coimbatore.
        74. Palaniappan, SP. et al. (1990) In: Proc. International Symposium on National Resources Management for sustainable
        75. Agriculture, 6-10 February, 1990, New Delhi. p. 220.
        76. Palm, O., et al. (1988) Plant and Soil 108 : 201-209.
        77. Vol. 30, No. 1, 2009 47
        78. Pandey, R. K. and Morris, R. A. (1983) In : Proc. International Rice Research Conference, April 18-23, 1983 at the International
        79. Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Philippines.
        80. Ponnamperuma, F. N. (1964) Dynamic aspects of flooded soils and the nutrition of the rice plant. John Hopkins Press,
        81. Battimne, Maryland. pp. 295-328.
        82. Poovaradom, S., et al. (1988) Soil Sci. 145 : 257.
        83. Pramanik, S.C. and Mahapatra, B. S. (1997) Oryza 34 : 181-184.
        84. Pushpavalli, R., et al. (1993) The Hindu dated 24.04.1993.
        85. Rajeswari, C. (1990) M.Sc.(Ag.) Thesis, Tamil Nadu Agric. Univ., Coimbatore.
        86. Rekhi, R. S. and Bajwa, M. S. (1994) Fert. Res. 34(1) : 15-22.
        87. Salu Reddy, N., et al. (1995) J. Res. APAU. 23 (4) :97-99.
        88. Sankaran, N., et al. (2000) In: Theme papers on Integrated Nutrient Management (Ed.) Kannaiyan et al., published by Tamil
        89. Nadu Agric. Univ., and State Dept. Agriculture. pp.111-121.
        90. Santra, G. H., et al. (1988) J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 36 (4) :652-659.
        91. Sharma, J. C. and Kuhad, M. S. (1993) IRRN 18 (3) : 28.
        92. Sharma, K.N., et al. (1985) J.Agric.Sci.Camb. 104 : 609-613.
        93. Siddeswaran, K. (1992) Ph.D. Thesis, Tamil Nadu Agric.Univ., Coimbatore.
        94. Singh, K. N. and Bhattacharyya, H. C. (1989) Direct-seeded rice. Published by Mohan Primlani for Oxford and IBH
        95. publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi. pp.135-142.
        96. Singh, R. K., et al. (1991) In: Proc. 22nd Asian Rice Farming Systems Working group meeting. Sept.30-Oct.4, 1991. Beijing,
        97. China. p.219-230.
        98. Singh, Y., et al. (1990) IRRN 15 (1) : 23.
        99. Singh, G. R., et al. (1999) IRRN 24 (3): p.25.
        100. Singh, N.T. (1984) In: Organic matter and rice, Int. Rice Res. Inst., Los Banos, Philippines. pp.217-228.
        101. Solaiappan, V., S. et al. (1996) Indian J. Agron. 41 (1) : 147-149.
        102. Somasundaram, E., et al. (1996) Madras Agric. J. 83 (12) : 758-760.
        103. Sreeramachandrasekaran, M. V., et al. (1996) Oryza 33 : 126-131.
        104. Srivastava, O. P. (1998) Indian J. Agric. Chem. 31 (1) : 1-12.
        105. Subbalakshmi Lokanadhan, et al. (1999) In: Vistas of Rice Research (Platinum jubilee 1922 – 1997) of Tamil Nadu Rice
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